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Air pneumatic compression is a concept used for management of venous disease, including oedema. A typical air pneumatic compression device (PCD) consists of an inflatable sleeve composed of either single or multiple pressure chambers that encircle a limb. The aim of this research was to develop a mathematical model to predict the pressure applied by an air pneumatic device to an irregular cross-sectional lower limb manikin. The radius of curvature at any cross-section of the lower limb (i.e. calf (gastrocnemius), tibial crest (anterior edge of the tibia bone)) is irregular, and differs amongst individuals and populations. The effectiveness of air pneumatic devices is difficult to predict with these irregular cross sections. A theoretical model was developed to calculate pressure applied by compression sleeves on a lower leg manikin and results compared against experimental pressure exerted on the manikin by a silicone-based PCD. This prediction was made at each of three positions. The theoretical model developed based on elliptical shaped forms predicted the pressure more accurately for the ankle to above ankle position, whereas the model based on circular shaped forms predicted the pressure more accurately for below the calf to below the knee position. Refinements to the theoretical model to predict the pressure applied by PCD are recommended.

The objective of this research was to determine the effect of multiple layers of materials typical of those used in air pneumatic compression devices (which require air impermeable layers to function) on thermal and water vapor resistance. The experimental set-up included: (a) single layers of two next-to-skin knit fabrics in both relaxed and extended conditions, (b) two layers of silicone, and (c) a multi-layered assembly comprised of a next-to-skin fabric and two layers of silicone. Structural properties (thickness, mass) dominated thermal resistance of the multi-layered assembly, and the silicone layers rendered this assembly impermeable to water vapor as expected. Results confirmed the need for some form of 'ventilation' to facilitate water vapor transfer from a potential user’s skin to the environment. By creating 18 circular vents across the silicone layers (each vent 314 mm2), which formed ventilation of ∼2% of total surface area, the water vapor resistance of the multi-layered assembly dropped significantly from very high (but non-measurable) to below ∼300 m2Pa/W, although ventilation did not improve the thermal resistance of the multi-layer arrangements. Results of this research will enable manufacturers of pneumatic compression devices to develop devices comprised of a multiple layer arrangements i.e. a knit fabric next-to-skin layer and silicone layers with optimized vents across the silicone layers, so that the user can continue the compression treatment with an acceptable microenvironment.

Understanding odor volatiles known to constitute those emanating from the human body and how these interact with textiles is relevant to diverse interested parties because of changing fiber use, a better understanding of apparel life cycles including cleaning and the potential for fiber/textile re-use. This paper extends the application of our proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry model system on adsorption and release behavior of fiber types typical of next-to-skin uses to include both viscose and other volatile organic compounds in body odor for which release has not previously been studied (hexanoic acid, acetone, cyclohexanone, hexanal, methyl butanoate, ethyl benzene, 1-octanol, decanal, butanoic acid). The current findings confirmed release patterns of different fiber types found in our earlier studies – low release of volatile organic compounds from cotton and wool, but higher release from polyester – and made a new finding of low release from viscose. Adsorption characteristics were different given the different volatile organic compounds analyzed. Viscose showed better adsorption characteristics for primarily polar volatile organic compounds, but was otherwise very similar to cotton.

Bandages are common in many health-related treatments, including management of edema of the lower limb where they may remain in place for several days. The behavior of 2 bandage fabrics was investigated after exposure for up to 5 days to a multiaxial extension laboratory setup on a tensile tester in compression mode. The fabrics were extended 20% and remained under that machine setting. Stress-relaxation over time was determined by analyzing the rate of change over 24 hours and over 5 days. Most change, a rapid drop in force, occurred during the first 15 minutes; thereafter, for the next 12-hour period, a slower rate of decrease was observed. Both fabrics continued to relax gradually during the next 12 hours and continued to do so for up to 5 days. Little further change was evident during the last 12 hours or so. This phenomenon suggests that rewrapping may be appropriate (albeit not practical) after 12 hours of compression therapy to optimize the compression given to the lower leg. Relaxation behavior of these 2 fabrics can be explained using the generalized Maxwell-Wiechert model.

An electric clothes dryer is a common household appliance and its use contributes a large portion of energy consumption from household appliances. In some countries, dryers are labelled with an energy rating indicating their energy consumption relative to comparable dryers on the market. Standard performance testing for electric clothes dryers imported to New Zealand (NZ) requires an ambient temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and relative humidity of 60 ± 5%RH. However, the published literature shows that rooms in NZ homes tend to be colder than 20 °C, especially in winter months when a dryer is more likely to be used. We investigate the performance of a commercially available clothes dryer at the standard ambient moist air conditions, with standard calibrated textile loads, to measure the electrical energy consumption of the dryer. Tests are repeated for different sets of ambient temperature and relative humidity conditions. Lower ambient temperature operation shows a decrease in total energy performance of around 17% and 14%, for 2.1 and 6.1 kg loads, respectively, compared with drying at the standard conditions. Operation at a higher relative humidity for a fixed ambient temperature shows an 8% increase in total energy consumption. Tests were also carried out with the dryer wrapped in thermal insulation, and results show that energy performance did not change significantly. These results indicate that changing AS/NZS2442.1:1996 to better match moist air test conditions typical of a NZ home may improve energy performance characterisation of dryers operating in these homes, and contribute to removal of less efficient dryers from the NZ market.

Layer-by-layer three-dimensional nanofibrous scaffolds (3DENS) were produced using the electrospinning technique. Interest in using biopolymers and application of electrospinning fabrication techniques to construct nanofibers for biomedical application has led to the development of scaffolds composed of PVA, keratin, and chitosan. To date, PVA/keratin blended nanofibers and PVA/chitosan blended nanofibers have been fabricated and studied for biomedical applications. Electrospun scaffolds comprised of keratin and chitosan have not yet been reported in published literature, thus a novel nanofibrous PVA/keratin/chitosan scaffold was fabricated by electrospinning. The resulting 3DENS were characterized using fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning colorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Physiochemical properties of the polymer solutions such as viscosity (rheology) and conductivity were also investigated. The 3DENS possess a relatively uniform fibrous structure, suitable porosity, swelling properties, and degradation which are affected by the mass ratio of keratin, and chitosan to PVA. These results demonstrate that PVA/keratin/chitosan 3DENS have the potential for biomedical applications.

Background Compression is a common therapy for management of chronic disease, including oedema of the lower limb. Modern compression interventions exert pressure on the lower limb through use of one or more materials which exert pressure against the limb over time. Where these materials are textiles, they range from elastic to inelastic, and are produced using knitting, weaving, or other textile technologies which can be manipulated to control performance properties. Thus, understanding of both the materials/textiles and the human body is needed if the most appropriate compression device and treatment strategy is to be used. Neither is independent of the other. This review aims to enhance understanding of critical textile performance properties and how selection of textiles may affect treatment efficacy when managing chronic oedema of the lower limb. Method Relevant papers for review were identified via PubMed Central® library, and Google Scholar using keywords associated with textile-based treatments of the oedematous lower limb and wider interdisciplinary factors. Results Assessment of the disorder, the severity of oedema, and location of fluid accumulation are required to inform treatment of chronic oedema. While the need to understand the patient is well established (e.g. age, sex, body mass index, skin thickness and colour, patient compliance with treatment), information about preferred compression systems and material structures, and inherent properties of these, is generally lacking. Conclusion Greater detail about materials used (e.g. fabric structure, number and order of layers, fibre content) and patient diagnosis (e.g. underlying cause, severity, location of oedema; patient age and sex; evidence of compliance with treatment; pressure exerted; lower leg shape, size, and properties of the tissue) is needed to facilitate advances in efficacy of compression treatment. Reduced limb swelling with a textile-based treatment occurs simultaneously with changes to the textile itself. Textiles cannot be considered inert.

Electrically conductive fabrics are achieved by functionalizing with treatments such as graphene, however, these change conventional fabric properties and the treatments are typically not durable. Encapsulation may provide a solution for this, and the present work aims to address these challenges. Next-to-skin wool and cotton knit fabrics functionalized using graphene ink were encapsulated with three poly(dimethylsiloxane)-based products. Properties known to be critical in a next-to-skin application were investigated (fabric structure, moisture transfer, electrical conductivity, exposure to transient ambient conditions, wash, abrasion, and storage). Wool and cotton fabrics performed similarly. Electrical conductivity was conferred with the graphene treatment but decreased with encapsulation. Wetting and high humidity/low temperature resulted in an increase in electrical conductivity, while decreases in electrical conductivity were evident with wash, abrasion, and storage. Each encapsulant mitigated effects of exposures but these effects differed slightly. Moisture transfer changed with graphene and encapsulants. As key performance properties of the wool and cotton fabrics following treatment with graphene and an encapsulant differed from their initial state, use as a patch integrated as part of an upper body apparel item would be acceptable.

The objective was to determine whether changes in indicators of skin health among participants suffering from diabetes mellitus could be attributable to the type of sock worn (fiber content, structure). Changes in skin health over time (e.g. temperature, skin hardness, transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration) can indicate improvement or deterioration, and these may be related to socks worn. Socks of different structure (single jersey, terry), and of fiber content (merino wool, cotton) were worn over a period of 22 weeks by participants suffering from diabetes mellitus. Each participant was their own control: change over time in skin hardness, stratum corneum hydration, transepidermal water loss and temperatures were monitored. Properties of the sock fabrics were measured as new and after use to determine effects of wear. Limited evidence of improved skin health was attributable to socks composed primarily of wool.

Low-energy impact testing of hockey shin guards was carried out using a drop test impact rig and a new physical setup protocol. Two brands of shin guards were impacted once (2.6 J, 3.3 J; without and with a sock), and impacted three times (3.3 J; with a sock). The peak force and impulse of a single impact increased with increasing impact energy (by approximately 30 and 7%, respectively) whilst repeated impacts increased the peak force and decreased the impulse (by approximately 70 and 3–9%, respectively, between one and three impact events). The presence of a sock attenuated impact force to a greater extent than the guards alone, at both impact energies. As a sock is usually worn over hockey shin guards, its presence contributes to enhanced protection to the lower limb.

The creation of axillary body odor and its interaction with worn textiles is of continuing interest to textile manufacturers and finishers, product developers and marketers, and end users. This paper explains a novel proton transfer reaction – mass spectrometry model system to investigate the adsorption and release behavior of three fiber types commonly worn next to the skin (cotton, polyester, wool) for compounds found in body odor (dimethyl disulfide, 2-propanethiol, benzaldehyde, nonanal, butanoic acid, and 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid). Three different patterns were observed: low relative adsorption and low overall release of the volatiles for cotton, high relative adsorption and continuous release of the volatiles for polyester, and high relative adsorption but low overall release for wool. This investigation, coupled with earlier studies by our group, goes some way to explain why the different fiber types are perceived as enhancing or suppressing body odor.

This work highlights recent developments in understanding human body odour with particular attention to natural fibres used in next-to-skin textiles: fibre type and fabric structure affecting patterns of adsorption and release of volatile organic compounds known as contributing to body odour; methods for detection and judging intensity of odour; and effects of environmental pressures which impinge on cleaning textiles and its efficacy. That the type of fibre has a dominant effect on adsorption and release of volatile organic compounds is a common finding from multiple and varied investigations. Ranking body odour retained in textiles from least intense to most intense—wool, cotton, polyester/polyamide—is reasonably consistent irrespective of method. Blends of different fibres and re-use/up-cycling warrant investigation with respect to adsorption and release of volatile organic compounds.

Properties critical to the structure of apparel and apparel fabrics (thermal and moisture transfer, elasticity, and flexural rigidity), those related to performance (durability to abrasion, cleaning, and storage), and environmental effects have not been consistently addressed in the research on fabric sensors designed to interact with the human body. These fabric properties need to be acceptable for functionalized fabrics to be effectively used in apparel. Measures of performance such as electrical conductivity, impedance, and/or capacitance have been quantified. That the apparel/human body system involves continuous transient conditions needs to be taken into account when considering performance. This review highlights gaps concerning fabric-related aspects for functionalized apparel and includes information on increasing the inclusion of such aspects. A multidisciplinary approach including experts in chemistry, electronics, textiles, and standard test methods, and the intended end use is key to widespread development and adoption.

Branded blends of wool and cotton for high-end apparel fabrics were established in Britain and later exported to many English-speaking countries during the 19 th century (e.g. woven fabrics Viyella™, 55% wool, 45% cotton; Clydella™, 81% cotton, 19% wool). During the late 20 th century, cotton and wool blend yarns for high-end apparel applications were developed in Australia (Colana®, 70% cotton, 30% wool). None of these branded blends of wool and cotton has a current market presence, yet there is evidence of relevance and interest in such blends for the high-end apparel market. How can we account for this disappearance and for the renewed interest?

The mechanism of dry heat flow through lofty nonwoven structures (i.e. thermal resistance) as occurs in quilts has been established. By contrast, there is a scarcity of published information on the water vapor transport properties. This work explores the thermal and water vapor transport properties of a number of different quilt samples with a focus on identifying fiber type effects. Both commercial product and matched laboratory samples were examined. Steady-state thermal resistance and water vapor resistance measurements confirmed that both properties are primarily determined by sample thickness and are largely independent of fiber type. Experiments were also undertaken to observe transient effects. Test samples were initially equilibrated on a ‘dry’ guarded hotplate (35 ± 0.1℃) in a low relative humidity environment (45%). The relative humidity was then rapidly increased to 85%. Compared to polyester, wool samples exhibited a large reduction in the heat flux required to maintain the hotplate temperature. This transient peak lasted for in excess of 1000 seconds. The magnitude of this transient peak in heat flux was proportional to the quantity of wool in the sample and is believed to be associated with the known exothermic nature of water vapor absorption by wool as relative humidity increases. Based on the published values of the heat of water absorption of wool it is estimated that this additional transient heat source is significant relative to a typical human resting metabolic rate and so the effect may be of practical relevance in the bedding environment.

The objective of this investigation was to better understand the effects of foot coverings differing in fiber content on the health of the skin on the foot. A longitudinal controlled parallel design wear trial was carried out over 8 weeks: four sock types differing in fiber/yarn closely matched for fiber diameter (100% acrylic, 100% wool (24.5 µm), 100% cotton, 100% wool (20.5 µm)), manufactured such that only fiber type differed, were worn by 16 men. The effects on transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, pH, skin temperature were examined. Variability in effects among the participants was evident. Each person was his own control, with change expressed as a percentage from baseline. Fabric structural properties and selected performance properties were measured on fabrics of the same fiber/structure as of the socks. Improvement in skin health at the heel, in particular, was evident. Wool socks were associated with more cases of improved skin health (e.g. reduced percentage changes in transepidermal water loss and increased stratum corneum hydration). Results from two indicators of skin health considered together provided stronger evidence of effects than one alone.

This study aimed to determine the relative effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high-twist, low-twist, single), and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on thermal resistance, water vapor resistance, thermal conductance, water vapor permeability, liquid absorption capacity, and regain of sock fabrics. Fabric structure had the greatest effect on thermal resistance, water vapor resistance, water vapor permeability, liquid absorption capacity, and thermal conductance. Terry fabrics were the most thermal and water vapor resistant, most absorbent, and most conductive. Results were consistent with current understanding of the effect of fabric thickness on thermal and moisture transfer properties when measured under static conditions: However, the effects of yarn type and/or fabric structure of sock fabrics have not previously been explained.

The objective of this study was to measure the combined effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high twist, low twist, single) and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on friction between sock fabrics and a synthetic skin using the horizontal platform method. The effect of weight of a hypothetical wearer and moisture content of a sock fabric were also investigated. Differences among fabrics were analyzed using frictional force traces. Data compared included the static and dynamic friction and coefficients of friction, as well as three new descriptive parameters. All variables investigated affected the frictional characteristics between a sock fabric and a synthetic skin. Single jersey fabrics had the lowest coefficient of static and dynamic friction. Friction between fabric and a synthetic skin was affected most by the applied weight, with the simulated adult weight resulting in a greater frictional force, and higher coefficients of static and dynamic friction. The most important effect of fiber was on the static frictional force and coefficient of static friction of damp fabrics, with fabrics composed of fine wool exhibiting lowest friction, and acrylic fabrics the highest.

The objective of this study was to subject dry and damp sock fabrics to repeated compression cycles in order to determine the relative effects of fiber type (fine wool, mid-micron wool, acrylic), yarn type (high twist, low twist, single) and fabric structure (single jersey, half-terry, terry) on fabric compression and recovery from compression. Changes in fabric thickness were measured using a tensile tester and a number of parameters identified and analyzed: retained thickness, recovered thickness, compression to recovery ratio, energy absorption and energy absorption standardized for fabric thickness. The dominant factor was the number of compression cycles, with most change in the thickness retained and recovered evident within the first 10 cycles. The pattern of response of dry and damp fabrics was quite different with, the dry fabrics having a better compression to recovery ratio. Energy absorption was affected strongly by fabric structure, however this was closely related to initial fabric thickness. When fabrics were made damp, fabrics composed of acrylic fibers had a better compression to recovery ratio than fabrics composed of wool.

Textiles form an important part of Māori culture, of interest to Europeans since contact with New Zealand in 1642. The need to describe Māori textiles in English has determined the terminology chosen to describe them, and also affected understandings of Māori weaving. Ethnographic observation and recording of Māori textile production by European non-weavers, inaccurate translation of Māori words, as well as incorrect use of terms have all contributed to difficulties in understanding Māori textile structures. The development of current terminology for describing Māori textiles is discussed, highlighting how it arises as a result of temporal, cultural and political factors, and the consequent importance of names. The values implicit in names given to Māori textiles then affect knowledge, scholarship and communication of their attributes. One Māori textile form, rāranga, illustrates how basing classification on structure alone could clarify understanding, remove implicit value judgements, and enable ...

Compression garments (CGs) provide a means of applying mechanical pressure at the body surface, thereby compressing and perhaps stabilizing/supporting underlying tissue. The body segments compressed and applied pressures ostensibly reflect the purpose of the garment, which is to mitigate exercise-induced discomfort or aid aspects of current or subsequent exercise performance. Potential benefits may be mediated via physical, physiological or psychological effects, although underlying mechanisms are typically not well elucidated. Despite widespread acceptance of CGs by competitive and recreational athletes, convincing scientific evidence supporting ergogenic effects remains somewhat elusive. The literature is fragmented due to great heterogeneity among studies, with variability including the type, duration and intensity of exercise, the measures used as indicators of exercise or recovery performance/physiological function, training status of participants, when the garments were worn and for what duration, the type of garment/body area covered and the applied pressures. Little is known about the adequacy of current sizing systems, pressure variability within and among individuals, maintenance of applied pressures during one wear session or over the life of the garment and, perhaps most importantly, whether any of these actually influence potential compression-associated benefits. During exercise, relatively few ergogenic effects have been demonstrated when wearing CGs. While CGs appear to aid aspects of jump performance in some situations, only limited data are available to indicate positive effects on performance for other forms of exercise. There is some indication for physical and physiological effects, including attenuation of muscle oscillation, improved joint awareness, perfusion augmentation and altered oxygen usage at sub-maximal intensities, but such findings are relatively isolated. Sub-maximal (at matched work loads) and maximal heart rate appears unaffected by CGs. Positive influences on perceptual responses during exercise are limited. During recovery, CGs have had mixed effects on recovery kinetics or subsequent performance. Various power and torque measurements have, on occasions, benefitted from the use of CGs in recovery, but subsequent sprint and agility performance appears no better. Results are inconsistent for post-exercise swelling of limb segments and for clearance of myocellular proteins and metabolites, while effects on plasma concentrations are difficult to interpret. However, there is some evidence for local blood flow augmentation with compression. Ratings of post-exercise muscle soreness are commonly more favourable when CGs are worn, although this is not always so. In general, the effects of CGs on indicators of recovery performance remain inconclusive. More work is needed to form a consensus or mechanistically-insightful interpretation of any demonstrated effects of CGs during exercise, recovery or - perhaps most importantly - fitness development. Limited practical recommendations for athletes can be drawn from the literature at present, although this review may help focus future research towards a position where such recommendations can be made.

Sporting compression garments (CG) are used widely during exercise despite little evidence of benefits. The purpose of this study was to investigate coverage and pressure effects of full-body CG on cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function at rest and during prolonged exercise, and on exercise performance. Twelve recreationally trained male cyclists [mean (SD) age, 26 (7) years; VO(2 max), 53 (8) mL kg(-1) min(-1)] completed three sessions (counterbalanced order), wearing either correctly-sized CG (CSG; 11-15 mmHg), over-sized CG (OSG; 8-13 mmHg), or gym shorts (CONT). Test sessions were conducted in temperate conditions [24 (1)°C, 60 (4)% relative humidity; ~2 m s(-1) air velocity during exercise], consisting of resting on a chair then on a cycle ergometer, before 60-min fixed-load cycling at ~65% VO(2 max) and a 6-km time trial. Wearing CG (CSG or OSG) did not mitigate cardiovascular strain during mild orthostatic stress at rest (p = 0.20-0.93 for garment effects). During exercise, cardiac output was ~5% higher in the CG conditions (p < 0.05), which appears to be accounted for via non-significant higher end-exercise heart rate (~4-7%, p = 0.30; p = 0.06 for greater heart rate drift in CSG); other cardiovascular variables, including stroke volume, were similar among conditions (p = 0.23-0.91). Covered-skin temperature was higher in CG conditions (p < 0.001) but core (oesophageal) temperature was not (p = 0.79). Time-trial performance (mean power, time taken) was similar with or without CG (p = 0.24-0.44). In conclusion, any demonstrable physiological or psychophysical effects of full-body CG were mild and seemingly reflective more of surface coverage than pressure. No benefit was evident for exercise performance.

The objective was to examine the effects of layering fabrics on selected properties known to be critical in the outdoor recreational activity market (permeability to air and to water vapor, and thermal-related measures including ’dry’ and ’wet’ thermal resistance). With laboratory-based testing used by manufacturers to aid fabric selection, information on the way in which fabrics behave as layered arrangements is pertinent.Comparisons of effects on fabric properties were based on fibers (merino wool, polyester), knit structures (single jersey, interlock, eyelet), and whether differences were apparent with multiple-layer arrangements typical of end use, including outer layers. Standard methods and modifications to these were applied. Some properties differed according to the spacing (distance) between layers and/or between a first layer and a hypothetical ’skin’ surface. Differences among the different fabrics/fibers were more apparent with one layer than with multiple layers. Layering of fabrics which are likely to be used as garments worn together has major effects on properties such as permeability to air and water vapor, thermal resistance, and nominal thermal conductance. Effects of adding a second layer typically exceeded those of adding a third.

The objective was to adapt Standard test methods for determining properties of apparel fabrics so these properties are a better reflection of fabrics when used in end-products, while retaining a controlled environment and thus allowing fabric comparisons2. Test methods in which properties are compared when fabrics are dry and damp, and/ or in which they are in multiple-layered assemblies have been developed and applied to a range of fabrics.

Textile fibre aggregates can be extracted from the leaves of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), a plant endemic to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. This research note, which was developed from N. M. Cruthers' Masters thesis, aims to review early trade between Māori and western settlers to New Zealand, the industrial development of a mechanised extraction industry and to examine reported reasons for failure of the industry. Hand extraction by Māori produced low volumes of fibre but traditional end uses were for prized cultural items. In comparison, fibre produced industrially was produced in high volume and was intended for commonplace items such as rope and sacking.

There is no international standard method for measuring the strength of knotted suture materials, and although several methods have been published, there has been minimal investigation on the effects of test variables on measured properties (e.g. speed, gauge length, and knot tensioning force). Methods investigated in this work were the “ear method” (with and without a rod inside the loop), and the “cut-loop and ear method”. The test environment, material, and type of knot were constant. Effects of varying gauge length, test speed, and knot-tensioning force on tenacity and strain were investigated and compared with data for nonknotted sutures. Different values of tenacity and strain were evident for the different test methods; lower values of tenacity for specimens with shorter gauge lengths and tested at greater speeds; lower values of strain for specimens with longer gauge lengths and tested at greater speeds. Thus, tensile properties of suture materials tested at one gauge length or one test speed, as ...

Aims were to 1 characterize pretibial injuries and evaluate protection offered by garments/fabrics; and 2 develop a laboratory test to determine the potential protection provided by such fabrics. Most (>85%) of 75 patients treated for pretibial injury at Hutt Hospital, New Zealand sustained injury to one site and required surgery. Injuries were typically grade 3 or 4, 10-250 mm wide 30-350 mm long, and at the mid- to lower third of the tibia. The severity grade was lower when at least one fabric layer covered the site, slightly lower again with more than one layer, and when a knitted fabric/garment was worn, and a trouser type garment. Laboratory test methods and their application reflected these known variables. The force transmitted through multiple fabric layers was less then through one layer: thick pantyhouse and either denim or fabrics used in 'sweat pants' would minimize transmitted force and maximize impulse.

Clothing worn in close proximity to the human axilla can retain and emanate human body odour even remaining odorous long after removal from the body. Intensity of odour is affected by the fibre type from which the garment is made. Headspace analysis of axillary volatile compounds released from three interlock fabrics (cotton, wool, polyester) following wear were measured using an online monitoring instrument, proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). Compounds likely to be short-chain carboxylic acids increased in the headspace above the polyester fabrics after 7 days. This increase was not evident above either the wool or cotton fabrics. The intensity of axillary odour emanating from these fabrics was inversely related to fibre hygroscopicity. The relationship between a textile fibre/fabric's ability to retain and emanate odour is likely to be related to the metabolic versatility of resident microbial strains and/or the chemical and physical morphology of the fibre and its ability to ...

The performance of garments for outdoor activity was compared. Three fabrics, each in garments for the upper body, matched garment/wearer dimensions, were worn by 10 athletically 'well-trained' males under controlled conditions (hot 32 +/- 2 degrees C, 20 +/- 2% relative humidity (RH); cold 8 +/- 2 degrees C, 40 +/- 2% RH) with physical (instrumental) and sensory responses obtained during the trials. Differences in human responses to the fabrics/garments included heart rate, core temperature during run (hot, cold), rest (hot) and walk (cold), heat content of the body, humidity under garments during rest and run and time to onset of sweating. No such differences were identified for change in body mass, core temperature during walk (hot) and rest (cold), skin temperature, temperature of skin covered by the garment, humidity under the garments during walk or for any perceptions (thermal sensations, thermal comfort of torso, exertion, wetness). The garment in single jersey wool fabric performed best in both hot and cold conditions. Effects of garments on wearers are often related to properties of the fabrics from which the garments are made. This study shows that only some differences in fabric properties result in measurable thermophysiological and perceptual responses of the garment wearers and underlines the difficulty in predicting performance of garments/persons from laboratory tests on fabrics.

Clothing is worn in single- and multiple-layer arrangements and during use subjected to conditions such as extension and wetting. This study investigated how selected variables affected transmission of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) through fabrics and whether these variables interacted to modify transmission. Using a spectrophotometer the effect of i) fabric type (two knitted, two woven), color (black and white), wetness (dry, damp, wet), and extension (relaxed, extended (10 × 10%, 10 × 20%)), and ii) fabric type and layering (1, 2, 3 layers) of white fabrics, on UVR (290—400 nm), UVA (315—400 nm), UVB (290—315 nm), and ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) rating was investigated. Differences among variables were identified using univariate and repeated measures ANOVA, and interactions among variables identified and described. Selecting dark colors, limiting extension and layering fabric were shown to be effective ways of increasing UV protection and UPF by decreasing transmittance. However, the effect of color, extension and layering varied among fabric types and modified UVA and UVB transmittance differently.

The typical hospital and operating theatre present multiple potential hazards to both workers and patients, and protection against some of these is provided through use of various forms of clothing and textiles. While many standards exist for determining the performance of fabrics, most tests are conducted under laboratory conditions and against a single hazard. This paper provides an overview of selected developments in the principal properties of fabrics and garments for use in these workplaces, identifies the key standards, and suggests topics for further investigation.

The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of approaches to designing and analyzing investigations on textiles. Methods used in these investigations include experiments, surveys, case studies, and historical research. General principles are common to all these, as are considerations of sampling, types of data, and procedures for analysis. Examples of investigations involving fabrics, garments, and bedding are given, with comment on both design and analysis.

This paper reviews published and unpublished literature on the role of wool in human health and well-being. Human-based investigations, or those involving human simulations (manikins) were the focus. The principal parameters in the review were skin health, physical contact between textiles/garments and human skin (tactile acceptability—prickle, friction, allergies), thermal and moisture properties, human body odour, and sleep (bed clothes/sleepwear, bedding).

Compression garments are popular among competitive and recreational athletes alike. The debate about the efficacy of compression garments in sport is similarly popular, spanning the scientific literature, public press, social media, and the sports field itself. In this chapter we aim to assist both researchers and the general reader by discussing the core elements of the compression garment story. First, we consider compression—the applied pressures and factors influencing those pressures. Knowing the applied pressures in vivo and characteristics of the pressures during use are important for building a clearer idea about what aspects of sports performance and recovery are affected by compression garments and why. Second, we consider garments—that, like other clothing, compression garments cover and interact with the body, establish a microenvironment, and influence variables such as heat and moisture exchanges. Understanding characteristics of the garments themselves can be useful for aiding interpretation of certain physiological and psychological effects, including heat balance, comfort, and wearer acceptability. We hope that the detail here helps the reader to contextualise and critically evaluate research on compression garments in sport.

A method for collecting axillary odor on nine knit fabrics was developed and odor intensity determined using a panel of assessors. Two methods, one involving paired-comparisons in the quad analysis method and the other a line scale, were investigated to determine if differences in intensity of odor retained on the fabrics varying by fiber and fabric structure could be detected. Both methods allowed detection of differences. However, the line scale method was more time-efficient and enabled a greater number of assessors on the panel, an advantage for reducing the effect of individual differences in sensitivity to axillary odorants. Recommendations for a collection method, handling and assessment method are raised.

The objective of this work was to determine the drying time of a range of apparel fabrics simulating both during and after wear and in doing so, develop: (1) a laboratory method for wetting specimens in a reproducible manner, applicable to a wide variety of apparel fabrics and a large number of specimen; and (2) a method for determining drying time, including a practical laboratory definition for the end-point `dry'. The methods were applied to seventeen fabrics varying in fiber content and in fabric structure. Fabric specimens can be wetted by machine, can be line dried, and can be dried using a simulated on-skin method. A workable laboratory definition of `dry' is provided.

Nine apparel fabrics varying in fiber (cotton, wool, polyester) and knit structure (1 × 1 rib, interlock, single jersey) were investigated for their retention of axillary odor following wear. As axillary odor results from bacterial metabolism of apocrine and sebaceous secretions, counts of total aerobic bacteria and corynebacteria on the fabrics were carried out. Odor intensity was strongly associated with the fiber type, with polyester fabrics rating high in odor intensity and cotton and wool mid-low odor intensity. A structure effect was apparent for polyester fabrics, with the lightweight single jersey fabric rated less odorous than the heavier-weight interlock and 1 × 1 rib structures. The relationship between fiber type and odor was not influenced by bacterial numbers present, with counts after one day similar for all fabrics. However, the number of bacteria declined more rapidly on polyester fabrics than on either the cotton or wool fabrics. Counts of odor-associated corynebacteria subgroup (A) remained largely unchanged on wool fabrics for 28 days.

A range of wool knit fabrics designed to be used in garments worn next to or near the skin was examined to establish if differences in responses to water vapor and to water were detectable. The three-block experimental design involved six fabrics (non-dyed), and fabric responses on the dynamic sweating hotplate and on the gravimetric absorbency testing system (GATS) were determined. Some differences among the fabrics were detectable (e.g. %RH at the initial rise and at equilibrium, %RH rate of rise, temperature differences in the initial phase and at equilibrium, specific maximum absorbent capacity, flow rate) but many were not. For this set of wool knit fabrics, mass and thickness were typically linked to the temperature variables from the dynamic sweating hotplate, and bulk density linked to a few variables from the GATS.

The microscopic structure of muka (fiber aggregate extracted from harakeke) (observed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy) from six selected cultivars of harakeke varied, and this may explain the differences perceived by weavers, and that different end uses are preferred for various cultivars. The dimensions of ultimate fibers ranged from 10.1 μm (Takaiapu) to 12.8 μm (Paretaniwha) in average-transverse-width and 3735 μm (Takirikau) to 4751 μm (Makaweroa) in length. The cultivars prized for muka (e.g. Arawa, Makaweroa) had the longest and finest ultimate fibers. The transverse-section shapes of fiber aggregate bundles varied among the cultivars. Tapamangu and Takaiapu had fiber bundles that were more uniformly shaped than the other cultivars studied, and Takirikau had a high yield of fiber aggregate bundles. Paretaniwha differed from the other five cultivars studied having an average number of narrow, non-uniformly shaped fiber aggregate bundles per unit width.

The objective of this work was to develop a pre-treatment (cleaning) procedure for a wide range of apparel fabrics and to determine whether differences observed in the properties of fabrics which had and had not been pre-treated were significant. Properties relevant to the manufacture and/or performance of apparel included mass per unit area, thickness, bending length, flex-ural rigidity, drape coefficient, air permeability, water vapor permeability, liquid absorptive capacity, drying time, ‘dry’ thermal resistance, ultra-violet transmission. Results for the same property on the same fabric measured when the fabrics had and had not been pre-treated generally differed significantly, confirming the importance of pre-treatment prior to measuring these properties, particularly when claiming in-use attributes of fabrics. A procedure for pre-treatment is recommended: six consecutive cleaning cycles following procedure 8A of British Standard EN ISO 6330: 2001 (i.e. not dried between cycles), and dried flat following procedure C of this standard.

The effects of gauge length and test speed on the tenacity and strain of sisal aggregates (Agava sisalana) were determined. Tenacity was generally higher with shorter gauge lengths and slower test speeds. Strain was higher with shorter gauge lengths. However, the effect of test speed on both tenacity and strain was not the same at every gauge length. The mode of fibre failure appeared to differ with the test conditions. Longer specimens and those tested at faster speeds were prone to higher levels of longitudinal splitting. The effects of different ageing regimes on tenacity and strain of sisal aggregates were also determined. Tenacity was affected by elevated temperature and UV; strain by UV and simulated natural ageing.

Botanists recognize only two kinds of New Zealand flax ( Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi), while Māori weavers recognise over fifty different cultivars that have specific end-uses. Selected properties of muka4 (sclerenchyma fiber aggregates extracted from harakeke ( P. tenax)) from three of these cultivars (Arawa, Tapamangu, Makaweroa) are examined. Māori consider these three cultivars to provide excellent fibers that are easy to process. Tapamangu and Arawa are similar in terms of muka length, linear density, tenacity, extension at maximum load, and maximum extension, and the ultimate fibers of these cultivars have similar dimensions (width, length). Muka from Makaweroa is longer, not as tough, but with a linear density similar to the other cultivars. The ultimate fiber length of Makaweroa is greater, but the width is similar to Tapamangu and Arawa. Muka from the keel is longer, of higher linear density, and tougher (similar tenacity, higher maximum extension) compared to margin muka. The side of the leaf from which muka is extracted does not affect the properties measured.

The aim of this work was to validate the Wilson and Laing theoretical mathematical model for estimating the intrinsic “dry” thermal resistance of upper‐bedding, and compare the two‐dimensional models commonly used to estimate the “dry” thermal resistance of bedding in use, with the actual intrinsic “dry” thermal resistance measured using an infant thermal manikin. The Wilson and Laing model was the only model used adequately to estimate the intrinsic “dry” thermal used resistance of materials arranged over the infant thermal manikin. Estimation of intrinsic “dry” thermal resistance of bedding during use is not adequate using two‐dimensional models. Further investigation into the relationship between thermal resistance, conditions of use, and SIDS using the Wilson and Laing model is recommended.

We studied an Egyptian mummy housed in the Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the age of the mummy is 2,358 BP, which is the period of the 30th Dynasty of Nakhthorhebe. Serial CT scans show that the heart had been removed, which is unusual among Egyptian mummies. In contrast, the brain had been left in situ. The orbital breadth suggests a degree of hypertelorism, being at the upper limit of the values recorded for ancient Egyptian males. There is extensive dental disease with excessive tooth wear and tooth loss, typical of Egyptian mummies. The wrapping material, examined under SEM, is probably a linen textile with a selvage.

Selection of a suture material typically depends on its tensile properties, but in the absence of an international standard test method, a comparison of properties is problem atic. A series of experiments is conducted to determine the tensile performance of non-knotted and knotted non-sterile suture monofilaments, and the effect of test conditions on this performance. Using the ear and cut loop technique, the factorial experiment includes three gauge lengths, three crosshead speeds, three non-sterile suture monofila ments, and five knot configurations. Each combination of variables is replicated five times. Different test conditions affect the ultimate strain and tenacity of both knotted and non-knotted monofilaments. Ultimate strain values are lower with increasing gauge length (when tested at the same crosshead speed) and crosshead speed (when tested at the same gauge length). All monofilaments are characterized by higher tenacity values with in creasing gauge length (at the same crosshead speed) and lower tenacity values with increasing crosshead speed (at the same gauge length). Load-extension curves and visual images of selected monofilament sutures are provided.

Samples of opossum fibers are examined using scanning electron microscopy to describe their appearance, including any visible damage that may have resulted from early processing. Variations in the surface morphology among individual fibers and along the length of a single fiber are observed. Even tile-like, rounded tile-like, wave-like, and cornet-like scales are present, most with smooth surfaces and smooth scale margins. The mean fiber length and diameter are 29 mm and 19.89 μm, respectively, and neither fiber length nor diameter seems related to scale type. Breaks accompanied by transverse and longitudinal cracking, fibrillar failure, buckling, and peeling back of scales are evident in fibers extracted by machine. No damage is visible on bleached fibers.

The purpose of this work was to develop a model for estimating “dry” and “wet” thermal resistance of bedding during use. The model takes into account proportions of the body covered by different bedding arrangements, and the effects of an infants sleep position and method of tucking on thickness, thermal resistance and heat loss. Predictions of thermal resistance using various published formulae are compared with those from this study.

Comparing fabrics on the basis of properties determined in the laboratory can provide information valuable to manufacturers and users of fabrics and garments, although small changes to test methods seem to have the potential to yield data which is more relevant. Thermal resistance is the focus of a small experiment highlighting this conclusion.

Variables affecting the ‘wet’ thermal resistance of infant bedding materials arranged to simulate use are identified. Thermal resistance was determined when the materials were flat, and also when spaced to simulate use, using a guarded-hotplate similar to that specified in ISO11092:1993(E). The relationship between ‘wet’ thermal resistance and thickness is explored, and the effects of increasing thickness of the air space under and among the various layers of bedding were determined.

The purposes of this work were to determine: whether thickness of single layers can be used to accurately predict thickness and thermal resistance of multiple layer assemblies; and to identify variables affecting the total thickness (i.e. textile plus air layers) of bedding during simulated use. Thickness was determined when: materials were flat; and arranged over an infant manikin simulating use. Thermal resistance was measured using a guarded‐hotplate similar to that specified in ISO 11092:1993(E). During simulated use, the site of measurement, body position, tucking, and product type significantly affected thickness of bedding. Equations for predicting thickness and thermal resistance (dry) of multiple‐layer materials are described. While it was possible to predict thickness and thermal resistance of flat bedding from estimated values, extrapolation to bedding during simulated use was considered inappropriate, with significant differences of over 1,000 per cent.