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Copyright © The Author(s) 2022. There is extensive qualitative evidence of violence and enforcement impacting sex workers who are ethnically or racially minoritized, and gender or sexual minority sex workers, but there is little quantitative evidence. Baseline and follow-up data were collected among 288 sex workers of diverse genders (cis/transgender women and men and non-binary people) in London (2018–2019). Interviewer-administered and self-completed questionnaires included reports of rape, emotional violence, and (un)lawful police encounters. We used generalized estimating equation models (Stata vs 16.1) to measure associations between (i) ethnic/racial identity (Black, Asian, mixed or multiple vs White) and recent (6 months) or past police enforcement and (ii) ethnic/racial and sexual identity (lesbian, gay or bisexual (LGB) vs. heterosexual) with recent rape and emotional violence (there was insufficient data to examine the association with transgender/non-binary identities). Ethnically/racially minoritized sex workers (26.4%) reported more police encounters partly due to increased representation in street settings (51.4% vs 30.7% off-street, p = 0.002). After accounting for street setting, ethnically/racially minoritized sex workers had higher odds of recent arrest (adjusted odds ratio 2.8, 95% CI 1.3–5.8), past imprisonment (aOR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1–5.0), police extortion (aOR 3.3, 95% CI 1.4–7.8), and rape (aOR 3.6, 95% CI 1.1–11.5). LGB-identifying sex workers (55.4%) were more vulnerable to rape (aOR 2.4, 95% CI 1.1–5.2) and emotional violence. Sex workers identifying as ethnically/racially minoritized (aOR 2.1, 95% CI 1.0–4.5), LGB (aOR 2.0, 95% CI 1.0–4.0), or who use drugs (aOR 2.0, 95% CI 1.1–3.8) were more likely to have experienced emotional violence than white-identifying, heterosexual or those who did not use drugs. Experience of any recent police enforcement was associated with increased odds of rape (aOR 3.6, 95% CI 1.3–8.4) and emotional violence (aOR 4.9, 95% CI 1.8–13.0). Findings show how police enforcement disproportionately targets ethnically/racially minoritized sex workers and contributes to increased risk of rape and emotional violence, which is elevated among sexual and ethnically/racially minoritized workers. The National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research Programme (PHR) funded this study (PHR 15/55/58).

Copyright (c) 2022 Rachel Stuart. This article will bring together Deleuze and Guattari’s theory of Smooth Space and zemiological debates of social harms to respond to the question set by Jane Scoular (2015): does the law matter in sex work? The regulation and policing of performers by hosting sites allow sites to avoid state-level legislation. However, site regulations cause performers to experience harm that traditional concepts of the law cannot address because the law is powerless against the intrinsic injuries done by neo-liberalism. The damages experienced by female performers were not generally criminal but nonetheless harmful to those experiencing them, even though generally no laws were transgressed. When performers did experience crime, the non-territorial nature of the internet prevented action from being taken. This article will explore the irrelevance of the law in the context of webcamming and the potential harms caused by academia’s fixed gaze on the customer, preventing consideration of the damages done to webcam performers by other social actors.

Data availability statement: Data are available on reasonable request. Data will be made available on reasonable request. Supplementary Data: This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content. [The supplementary data are available on the archived file on this repository, and are also available online at: Data supplement 1: https://sti.bmj.com/highwire/filestream/169847/field_highwire_adjunct_files/0/sextrans-2021-055088supp001_data_supplement.pdf; Data supplement 2: https://sti.bmj.com/highwire/filestream/169847/field_highwire_adjunct_files/1/sextrans-2021-055088supp002_data_supplement.pdf]. Copyright © Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Objectives To examine legal and social determinants of violence, anxiety/depression among sex workers. Methods A participatory prospective cohort study among women (inclusive of transgender) ≥18 years, selling sex in the last 3 months in London between 2018 and 2019. We used logistic generalised estimating equation models to measure associations between structural factors on recent (6 months) violence from clients or others (local residents, strangers), depression/anxiety (Patient Health Questionnaire-4). Results 197 sex workers were recruited (96% cisgender-women; 46% street-based; 54% off-street) and 60% completed a follow-up questionnaire. Street-based sex workers experienced greater inequalities compared with off-street in relation to recent violence from clients (73% vs 36%); police (42% vs 7%); intimate partner violence (IPV) (56% vs 18%) and others (67% vs 17%), as well as homelessness (65% vs 7%) and recent law enforcement (87% vs 9%). Prevalence of any STI was 17.5% (17/97). For street-based sex workers, recent arrest was associated with violence from others (adjusted OR (aOR) 2.77; 95% CI 1.11 to 6.94) and displacement by police was associated with client violence (aOR 4.35; 95% CI 1.36 to 13.90). Financial difficulties were also associated with client violence (aOR 4.66; 95% CI 1.64 to 13.24). Disability (aOR 3.85; 95% CI 1.49 to 9.95) and client violence (aOR 2.55; 95% CI 1.10 to 5.91) were associated with anxiety/depression. For off-street sex workers, financial difficulties (aOR 3.66; 95% CI 1.64 to 8.18), unstable residency (aOR 3.19; 95% CI 1.36 to 7.49), IPV (aOR 3.77; 95% CI 1.30 to 11.00) and alcohol/drug use were associated with client violence (aOR 3.16; 95% CI 1.26 to 7.92), while always screening and refusing clients was protective (aOR 0.36; 95% CI 0.15 to 0.87). Disability (aOR 5.83; 95% CI 2.34 to 14.51), unmet mental health needs (aOR 3.08; 95% CI 1.15 to 8.23) and past eviction (aOR 3.99; 95% CI 1.23 to 12.92) were associated with anxiety/depression. Conclusions Violence, anxiety/depression are linked to poverty, unstable housing and police enforcement. We need to modify laws to allow sex workers to work safely and increase availability of housing and mental health services. National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research Programme (PHR) funded this study (PHR 15/55/58).