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Copyright of Tecnología y Ciencias del Agua is the property of Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua (IMTA) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

An urban–rural dichotomy currently exists in policy documentation, accessibility to resources, and human rights. In Brazil, there remains a significant deficit in water and sanitation services coverage, particularly in rural areas. To achieve universal access to water, the legal framework addresses the development of decentralization actions and co-participation in management. As a result, a community-managed water supply (CMWS) has emerged as the social tool in which the community effectively participates in decision-making and oversees the operation and maintenance of water systems. The long-term sustainability of these systems is affected by critical factors in implementation, management, and maintenance. However, no strategic plan exists to solve/mitigate the critical factors commonly associated with CMWS. We proposed an action plan with multiscale intersectoral management strategies to guarantee water security for rural populations. The strategies were separated into areas of responsibility discussed in the recent literature and evaluated by experts. The strategies at the national level were related to institutional aspects and policy formulation. At the local level, the strategies were related to supporting CMWS from project implementation to post-construction. Finally, at the community level, the strategies were related to the quality and financial recognition of the services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current methodological paradigm for addressing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) inaccessibility in rural sub-Saharan Africa is achieving insufficient progress. This essay evaluates WaSH-related policy, programming, and discourse from 1918 to 2021 to identify how this paradigm evolved and how it may reform. I argue that political–economic environments have strongly influenced existing sectoral praxis, shaping both programmatic methods and means. Colonial occupations generated rural–urban material inequalities, which were maintained and exacerbated during postwar reconstruction (1950–1970) and the proliferation of neoliberalism (1970–1990s). Meanwhile, modernization theory, a fundamental feature of colonial thought, has persisted discursively and practically. That is, rural resource limitations led WaSH practitioners to promote lower-cost appropriate technologies in the 1980s. Then, with challenges regarding technological disuse and misuse, behavior change–oriented methodologies responsively emerged in the 2000s and continue today. Yet, much like colonial predecessors, this latter turn presupposes that its programmatic benefactors must adapt to access WaSH services. Behavior change programs thus fail to critically consider the role of technological inadequacies and associated risk exposures in perpetuating existing inequities. Investigation of utility-style service models, where WaSH services adapt to the lives of its benefactors and behavioral persuasion is substituted for nonuser technological management, is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tecnología y Ciencias del Agua is the property of Instituto Mexicano de Tecnologia del Agua (IMTA) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In 2014, a gravity-fed rural piped water supply system (GFRPWSS) was constructed in the northern part of Malawi at a cost of $6.8 million (MK5 billion). The system was designed to serve 35,007 people by 2020 but at the time of the study, the ability of water users association (WUA) to operate and maintain the system as well as the financial sustainability (i.e. if the scheme could run without external support) were unclear. Financial records showed that the WUA collected only 26% of their expected payments in 2018. Over 94% of the WUA members lacked the necessary capacity to manage contracts and human resources and only 16% of the Community Water Point Committees were trained in relevant areas of management. Several key positions had been unfilled and the parts necessary for repairs were unavailable. This is one of the few ex-post evaluations of a GFRPWSS and highlights several key issues for those wishing to implement similar schemes. Findings showed that the water system only partially met the water requirements of the customers, that the WUA struggled technically and operationally to maintain the system and that at the time of the study, the system was financially unsustainable. Improved record-keeping and payment collection, especially if and when quantities are increased, would likely improve all dimensions of sustainability. HIGHLIGHTS A large-scale gravity-fed rural piped water supply system was constructed in northern Malawi at considerable cost.; After project funding was removed, the community-based committee was unable to collect sufficient operating revenue.; Community members tasked with operations, record keeping and maintenance were technically unprepared.; Investment in financial and operational skills is required if the scheme is to continue.;

An urban–rural dichotomy currently exists in policy documentation, accessibility to resources, and human rights. In Brazil, there remains a significant deficit in water and sanitation services coverage, particularly in rural areas. To achieve universal access to water, the legal framework addresses the development of decentralization actions and co-participation in management. As a result, a community-managed water supply (CMWS) has emerged as the social tool in which the community effectively participates in decision-making and oversees the operation and maintenance of water systems. The long-term sustainability of these systems is affected by critical factors in implementation, management, and maintenance. However, no strategic plan exists to solve/mitigate the critical factors commonly associated with CMWS. We proposed an action plan with multiscale intersectoral management strategies to guarantee water security for rural populations. The strategies were separated into areas of responsibility discussed in the recent literature and evaluated by experts. The strategies at the national level were related to institutional aspects and policy formulation. At the local level, the strategies were related to supporting CMWS from project implementation to post-construction. Finally, at the community level, the strategies were related to the quality and financial recognition of the services.

One hundred specimens from wounds, burns, and Rural water were collected, wounds and burns isolates were collected from patients laying in hospital from different age and gender . It was found that 50 isolates belong to Staphylococcus spp., 38 isolates were identified as S. aureus from infections isolates and 12 isolates were identified as S. aureus from rural water according to microscopic, cultural and biochemical testing. The study of seven extracellular enzyme as virulence factors including the enzymes: urease, lipase, DNase, haemolysin, coagulase, β-lactamase, and lecithinase. Revealed that 100% of S.aureus which isolated from infections had the ability to produce these enzymes, while the isolates of rural water were unable to produce the enzymes DNase, lipase, coagulase, but they were capable to produce haemolysin, urease, lecithinase, and β-lactamase the range for production of these factors were 50 %,84,%, 7,%, and 43% respectively. 14 Staphyolococcus isolates from infections isolates and 4 isolates from rural water isolates were selected according of their ability for production most of studies virulence enzymes for detection of genes encoding for the enzymes heamolysine (hly) and (coa) by using of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. The Gene hIy was detected in all isolates from infections and rural water and coa was detected in infections isolates only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Rural source water protection often requires protecting private well sources. • There are source water protection capacity gaps in Ontario, Canada in rural areas. • Rural appropriate policy options and programs are needed. This research examined the capacity for source water protection (SWP) of privately-serviced rural areas in Ontario. Privately-serviced areas refer to communities where households and public buildings either fully or partially derive their drinking water from private water systems (i.e. private wells), which are not serviced by a municipal drinking water system. Capacity for SWP in these areas was explored through a framework consisting of the following elements of capacity: technical/human, financial, social, and institutional. A case study approach was employed using the Cataraqui Source Protection Area and the North Bay-Mattawa Source Protection Area. Thirty key informant interviews were conducted and analyzed, together with a literature review and member checking. It was found that privately-serviced rural communities often do not see the protection of drinking water as one of their mandated responsibilities and that there are institutional, technical/human, social, and financial capacity gaps for undertaking SWP in privately-serviced areas. Further investigation is needed regarding options for a new, integrated, implementable and context appropriate SWP framework for privately-serviced areas in rural Ontario. The findings of this research provide transferable lessons for the creation of rural policy in general, and the need for a rural (rather than an urban focused) approach to policies and programs to protect rural drinking water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Rural electrification as an economic asset had not been questioned until 2017; • Categorisation of potable water as an amenity persists; • The World Bank pursues a path dependent approach to rural development; • This has been uncritically perpetuated to different contexts; • It has resulted in suboptimal budget allocations in Rwanda. The Tennessee Valley Authority and Rural Electrification Administration became the World Bank's template of choice for development projects. They remained so due to both institutional inertia within the World Bank and path dependent thinking of electrification as a means to economic growth. Consequently, electrification took the front seat for development projects worldwide, extending to rural areas, while water remains perceived as an amenity, rather than as economic infrastructure. This explains in part why the Government of Rwanda has prioritised rural electrification over rural clean drinking water in spite of recent evidence showing that rural electrification does not deliver growth in the Rwandan context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inadequate water supply is one of the greatest current and growing global challenges particularly in rural communities of the developing world. Part of the challenge has been the ineffective water legislation and policies contributing to poor water management and governance. This study investigates policy and institutional responses of community-based water supply management in Cameroon. Using secondary data and empirical evidence collected through participatory research, it was found that the management of rural water systems in Northwest Cameroon is challenged by uncoordinated policies and failed institutions. The study also revealed that there is continuous top-down management of natural resources despite the guise of decentralization of management responsibilities to rural communities and institutions. The paper argues that the efficacy of rural water supply will always be compromised unless rural communities and community-based organizations are involved and engaged indecision-making processes and project implementation that affect them, or in which they have an interest [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately 238,000 to 450,000 Albertans rely on private water wells for their water needs. In Canada, private well owners are responsible for monitoring and maintaining the quality of their water well, yet studies in Alberta indicate that owners do not undertake regular well maintenance or testing. This survey obtained information regarding farming and water well management practices, and drinking water preferences among private well owners in central Alberta. Questionnaires, water samples and drilling report information collected from 97 respondents between March 2015 and June 2017 were evaluated. Total coliforms were present (TC+) in 20/97 samples. There were no significant associations between well design and construction characteristics and the presence of TC+. Twenty-four and 20 respondents reported undertaking annual bacterial and chemical testing, respectively. Twenty-five respondents indicated their well had been shock chlorinated within the past three years. Concern about contamination (n = 28) was not significantly associated with increased frequency of water quality testing, well maintenance with shock chlorination, or purchasing of bottled water as an alternative drinking water. There has been little change since 2010 in the uptake of free water testing provided by Alberta Health Services. The organoleptic properties of water reported by respondents indicated shock chlorination might benefit a number of premises. Poultry producers are more likely to test their well water for bacterial and chemical contamination on an annual basis due to mandatory requirements stipulated by the poultry industry. There may be potential for a similar mandatory water testing guideline to be implemented for beef producers in Alberta. There is a need for education programs targeting rural well owners. The Working Well program information packages provided by the Government of Alberta provide an excellent source of information for water well owners. This survey indicates that new ways to disseminate this information to a broader audience are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work looks at sustainability aspects regarding water treatment for rural areas. In Colombia, although there is a broad legal and regulatory framework, low coverage and deficiencies in rural water quality persist. There are encouraging cases, where community schemes sustain their systems with treatment technologies. The sustainability of these technologies and service management in this context requires other approaches and strategies in which socio-technical innovations, strengthening of community management, support from secondlevel community organizations, and development of Community Learning Centers are an essential part of the purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current paper, the sustainability of community-based water supply projects in four different states in Sudan was assessed using a set of multidimensional indicators. A sustainability index was developed using a set of sustainability criteria including technical, reliability/risk, social, organisational, financial as well as sustainability. Basic sustainability criteria were selected based on literature review and stakeholders discussion. For each criterion a set of observable indicators was identified, in total 23 indicators were identified. Furthermore, a detailed statistical analysis and model development was carried out to identify main sustainability determinants for community-based water supply projects in Sudan. Partial least squares-path modelling was used to determine and quantify relationships between the sustainability criteria. The results showed that although all analyzed projects were relatively young projects (1 to 4 years), all projects showed low sustainability performance. This was mainly due to organizational as well as financial aspects, which also was confirmed by path modeling analysis, the sustainability of community-based water supply projects was directly related to organizational aspects, but indirectly related to financial issues. There is a need to give more attention to the communities’ organizational and financial abilities and to leverage their ability through governmental and/or non-governmental organization support especially after project implementation phase.

This study evaluates primary and secondary data from two districts to assess the status of asset management practices, and to examine requirements for improved asset management. Asset inventory data shows that asset management practices in the districts are currently poor, leading to high rates of nonfunctionality and low service levels. The existing 'fix on failure' approach to water systems' repair has become a common practice. However, many repairs which relied on 'fix on failure' were found to have delayed, often due to the length of time it takes to mobilise financial resources from 'post‐paid' water users. This paper contends that without an improved asset maintenance, system it is likely that rural water systems in Ghana will continue to provide unsustainable services. The Findings demonstrate that improving the current asset management practices is dependent on human and financial resources, access to timely water service monitoring data at district levels, and planning and budgeting regime to reflect life cycle costs of water systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sustainability of rural water supply services (WSS) remains one of the core challenges of the rural water sector in Nicaragua. The data available through the Central American Rural Water and Sanitation Information System in Nicaragua (SIASAR, in Spanish) is utilized to investigate the factors that drive the sustained functionality and quality of rural WSS systems over time. This report uses data from 6,863 communities, 4,792 water systems, 2,585 service providers, and 154 technical assistance (TA) providers contained in the SIASAR dataset. Statistical and econometric analysis provide evidence to support the hypothesis - widespread among rural WSS practitioners - that 'soft' measures in the provision of WSS are effective in fostering sustainability or 'functionality' of those systems. Such 'soft' measures include management capacity building of WSS community boards in charge of WSS oversight; demand-responsive approaches for developing, operating, managing, maintaining, rural water infrastructure; cost recovery mechanisms; community participation in the management of WSS systems; and the sustained provision of post-construction TA by local authorities. These measures are found as important determinants of the sustainability of WSS and its investments, and therefore are recommended to be included and institutionalized in rural WSS sector development policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarises the findings of a review of policy and strategy documents published circa 2008 by a diverse set of eleven development partners in the rural water sector. It was carried out as part of the Triple-S (Sustainable Services at Scale) Initiative using a Qualitative Document Analysis (QDA) approach to assess the extent to which the reviewed documents align with a set of 'building blocks' identified by Triple-S as integral to ensuring sustainable service delivery in the rural water sector. Based on the reviewed documents, the policies of the development partners included in this analysis demonstrate a clear commitment towards a number of important elements believed to be necessary for sustainable service delivery including learning and adaptive management, coordination and collaboration, capacity support for local government, and harmonisation and alignment. However, the analysis of the policy documents results in low scores for planning for asset management (i.e. renewals) and recognition and promotion of alternative service delivery options to community management (e.g. Self-supply of, or delegated management to, the private sector). Thus, this study indicates that these areas, considered by Triple-S to be crucial for improving sustainability, are relatively neglected and merit more attention in the policies of organisations.

The conventional detection methods of new water sources are the named "hidrologycal studies", which display low indicators of certainty, below 50%, and in times of shortage like the one we currently experiencing, are below 25%. Therefore it's necessary to resort towards a new technological generation for new groundwater sources detection methodologies. This project proposes basically to recognize a territory inside the region, display a satelital search which signals for trails of traces of ancient tectonic movements that enable to identify ideal areas for runoffs or groundwater reservoirs, which should be scanned later. A satellite scanning intended to specific areas of the region, develop the lithodynamic analysis which will have as result the "runoff lines" definition, on these lines we will proceed to scan the grounds, for each line we'll develop a profile, in some cases up to 200 meters deep, where it will be posible to identify potential water sources, each of these points will be geo-referenced on the surface. A drilling plan properly documented through the information generated across the venture, will enable to access these detected water sources. A parallel analysis to legal elements of the problem will may allow the public investment by corresponding bodies at a national level, accordingly, the project success will have a huge impact both social and economic, not only in the region but throughout the country, it must be remember that more 15% of the national population is supplied with drinking water through APRs systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continuous access to adequate quantities of safe water is essential for human health and socioeconomic development. Piped water systems (PWSs) are an increasingly common type of water supply in rural African small towns. We assessed temporal and spatial patterns in water consumption from public standpipes of four PWSs in Ghana in order to assess clean water demand relative to other available water sources. Low water consumption was evident in all study towns, which manifested temporally and spatially. Temporal variability in water consumption that is negatively correlated with rainfall is an indicator of rainwater preference when it is available. Furthermore, our findings show that standpipes in close proximity to alternative water sources such as streams and hand-dug wells suffer further reductions in water consumption. Qualitative data suggest that consumer demand in the study towns appears to be driven more by water quantity, accessibility, and perceived aesthetic water quality, as compared to microbiological water quality or price. In settings with chronic under-utilization of improved water sources, increasing water demand through household connections, improving water quality with respect to taste and appropriateness for laundry, and educating residents about health benefits of using piped water should be prioritized. Continued consumer demand and sufficient revenue generation are important attributes of a water service that ensure its function over time. Our findings suggest that analyzing water consumption of existing metered PWSs in combination with qualitative approaches may enable more efficient planning of community-based water supplies and support sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The supply of water to rural areas has historically provided the Mexican government with a significant challenge. Years of uncertainty in relation to responsibility for water supply, as well as geographical differences across the country and a division between rural and urban areas, explain this phenomenon. I have reviewed in this paper a substantial proportion of the literature on this topic, the reasons behind its nature, and the solutions to the problem in Mexico, as my main aim. The key conclusion is that while improvements in rural water supply in Mexico have been made, further work is required for equality in its supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarises the findings of a review of policy and strategy documents published circa 2008 by a diverse set of eleven development partners in the rural water sector. It was carried out as part of the Triple-S (Sustainable Services at Scale) Initiative using a Qualitative Document Analysis (QDA) approach to assess the extent to which the reviewed documents align with a set of 'building blocks' identified by Triple-S as integral to ensuring sustainable service delivery in the rural water sector. Based on the reviewed documents, the policies of the development partners included in this analysis demonstrate a clear commitment towards a number of important elements believed to be necessary for sustainable service delivery including learning and adaptive management, coordination and collaboration, capacity support for local government, and harmonisation and alignment. However, the analysis of the policy documents results in low scores for planning for asset management (i.e. renewals) and recognition and promotion of alternative service delivery options to community management (e.g. Self-supply of, or delegated management to, the private sector). Thus, this study indicates that these areas, considered by Triple-S to be crucial for improving sustainability, are relatively neglected and merit more attention in the policies of organisations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To explore the challenges that people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) experience in accessing water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) so as to inform policy and promote pro-HIV/AIDS WASH programs as well as equity in WASH investments. Methods: This was a descriptive study that utilized qualitative methods for data collection. The study population comprised of PLWHA as well as environmental health officers, water officers, medical doctors and HIV/AIDS care providers in Mpigi and Gomba districts, Uganda. Six focus group discussions (FGDs) with PLWHA (three for men and three for women) and twelve key informants (KIs) interviews were conducted. A moderator and a note taker facilitated the FGDs, which were tape recorded with consent from participants. Qualitative content analysis was done. Results: The KIs interviews and FGDs revealed that PLWHA in the study districts were facing serious challenges in accessing and utilizing WASH services. It was realized that the safe water coverage in the study area was low and PLWHA had limited access to improved water sources. Additionally, they experienced social prejudices that left them in a position where they felt like they were not good enough, inferior and isolated. Such feelings were affecting access to and utilization of WASH services for some PLWHA. Many PLWHA reported that the cost of water per 20-L jerrican (0.04 USD at some improved sources and 0.4-0.6 USD from water vendors) was high and unimproved sources such as ponds and dams were the alternative. They also had a bad attitude towards water guard noting that it causes a bad taste in water and does not reduce the turbidity. Conclusion: PLWHA face financial, attitudinal, knowledge, social, physical as well as institutional and sustainability barriers to accessing and utilizing WASH services. There is, therefore, a need to design and implement appropriate WASH sensitization programs for PLWHA. Water treatment using disinfectants that do not alter taste and can reduce turbidity of water should be promoted and such disinfectants should be made available in health facilities for PLWHA to get either for free or at subsidized prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an economical small-scale technology that has the potential to augment safe water supply with least disturbance to the environment, especially in the drier regions. In Nigeria, less than half of the population has reasonable access to reliable water supply. This study in northeastern Nigeria determined the rate of water consumption and current water sources before estimating the amount of rainwater that can potentially be harvested. A survey on 200 households in four villages namely, Gayama, Akate, Sidi and Sabongari established that more than half of them rely on sources that are susceptible to drought, i.e. shallow hand-dug wells and natural water bodies, while only 3% harvest rainwater. Taraba and Gombe states where the villages are located have a mean annual rainfall of 1,064 mm and 915 mm respectively. Annual RWH potential per household was estimated to be 63.35 m for Taraba state and 54.47 m for Gombe state. The amount could meet the water demand for the village of Gayama although the other three villages would have to supplement their rainwater with other sources. There is therefore sufficient rainwater to supplement the need of the rural communities if the existing mechanism and low involvement of the villagers in RWH activities could be improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to describe a method for evaluating the vulnerability of drinking water systems to contamination, in particular in rural regions used intensively for agriculture. To do so, various indicators were developed to represent the source to tap multi-barrier approach for drinking water safety. These indicators correspond to four barriers: source susceptibility to contamination; water treatment efficiency; distribution system management; and, overall management of water quality. The indicators were classified, regrouped and weighted within a model based on a multi-criteria analysis. The method was developed and applied to 39 municipal water systems of rural Quebec, Canada. The model obtained can be used for planning purposes to prioritise water systems requiring improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2012, the Maine Drinking Water Program, using a portion of its 15-percent Drinking Water State Revolving Loan Fund (SRF) set-aside, created a grant program for a regionally based asset management assistance program. Working under this grant, the Maine Rural Water Association (MRWA) targeted Franklin County, Maine for a unique approach to building capacity of the public water utilities in the area. We were uniquely positioned to assist with training and technical assistance of asset management plans for the rural water provider in Franklin Co. MRWA has been a constant presence in these utilities for more than 30 years, providing a multitude of services, including grants, rates, training programs, etc. All the utilities in Franklin County are long-standing members of our association, and there is a high degree of mutual respect and trust. The following describes the program, our activities, and future goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]