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The covalently bound FAD cofactor in monoamine oxidase (MAO) is reduced by the amine substrate and reoxidized by oxygen. Visible spectroscopy provides a convenient tool to study the interaction of ligands and the kinetics of the half-reactions for mechanistic investigations. Equilibrium redox titrations allow measurement of redox potentials, while rapid mixing experiments allow determination of the rate of reduction by different substrates and of covalent adduct formation by irreversible inactivators. Three techniques are described: (1) measuring ligand interactions by alterations in the spectrum, especially at 495 nm; (2) reducing MAO, including the essentials for anaerobic procedures; and (3) studying kinetics of reduction, reoxidation, or inactivation of MAO.

Authors would like to acknowledge ARUK for supporting this research. YC is Chinese Scholarship recipient. The University of St Andrews is a charity registered in Scotland: No SC013532 Mitochondrial dysfunction has a recognised role in the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathophysiology. Cerebral perfusion becomes increasingly inefficient throughout ageing, leading to unbalanced mitochondrial dynamics. This effect is exaggerated by amyloid β (Aβ) and phosphorylated tau, two hallmark proteins of AD pathology. A neuroprotective role for the adipose‐derived hormone, leptin, has been demonstrated in neuronal cells. However, its effects with relation to mitochondrial function in AD remain largely unknown. To address this question, we have used both a glucose‐serum deprived (CGSD) model of ischaemic stroke in SH‐SY5Y cells and a Aβ1‐42‐treatment model of AD in differentiated hippocampal cells. Using a combination of JC‐1 and MitoRed staining techniques, we show that leptin prevents depolarisation of the mitochondrial membrane and excessive mitochondrial fragmentation induced by both CGSD and Aβ1‐42. Thereafter, we used ELISAs and a number of activity assays to reveal the biochemical underpinnings of these processes. Specifically, leptin was seen to inhibit upregulation of the mitochondrial fission protein Fis1 and downregulation of the mitochondrial fusion protein, Mfn2. Furthermore, leptin was seen to upregulate the expression and activity of the antioxidant enzyme, monoamine oxidase B. Herein we provide the first demonstration that leptin is sufficient to protect against aberrant mitochondrial dynamics and resulting loss of function induced by both CGSD and Aβ1‐42. We conclude that the established neuroprotective actions of leptin may be facilitated through regulation of mitochondrial dynamics. Publisher PDF

Diseases of infection, of neurodegeneration (such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases), and of malignancy (cancers) have complex and varied causative factors. Modern drug discovery has the power to identify potential modulators for multiple targets from millions of compounds. Computational approaches allow the determination of the association of each compound with its target before chemical synthesis and biological testing is done. These approaches depend on the prior identification of clinically and biologically validated targets. This Perspective will focus on the molecular and computational approaches that underpin drug design by medicinal chemists to promote understanding and collaboration with clinical scientists.

The chemical system for the transformation of energy in eukaryotic mitochondria has engaged researchers for almost a century. This summary of four lectures on the electron transport system in mitochondria is an introduction to the mammalian electron transport chain for those unfamiliar with mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. It gives references chosen to reflect the history of the field and to highlight some of the recent advances in bioenergetics. The electron transport chain converts the energy that is released as electrons are passed to carriers of progressively higher redox potential into a proton gradient across the membrane that drives adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. The electron carriers include flavins, iron–sulfur centers, heme groups, and copper to divide the redox change from reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) at −320 mV to oxygen at +800 mV into steps that allow conversion and conservation of the energy released in three major complexes (Complexes I, III, and IV) by moving protons across the mitochondrial inner membrane. The three processes of proton pumping are now known after the successful determination of the structures of the large membrane protein complexes involved. Mitochondria and their proteins play roles not only in the production of ATP but also in cell survival, for which energy supply is the key. Publisher PDF

Based on the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition properties of aminoheterocycles with a carbonitrile group we have carried out a systematic exploration to discover new classes of carbonitriles endowed with dual MAO and AChE inhibitory activities, and Aβ anti-aggregating properties. Eighty-three nitrile-containing compounds, 13 of which are new, were synthesized and evaluated. in vitro screening revealed that 31, a new compound, presented the best lead for trifunctional inhibition against MAO A (0.34 μM), MAO B (0.26 μM), and AChE (52 μM), while 32 exhibited a lead for selective MAO A (0.12 μM) inhibition coupled to AChE (48 μM) inhibition. Computational analysis revealed that the malononitrile group can find an advantageous position with the aromatic cleft and FAD of MAO A or MAO B. However, the total binding energy can be handicapped by an internal penalty caused by twisting of the ligand molecule and subsequent disruption of the conjugation (32 in MAO B compared to the conjugated 31). Conjugation is also important for AChE as well as the hydrophilic character of malononitrile that allows this group to be in close contact with the aqueous environment as seen for 83. Although the effect of 31 and 32 against Aβ, was very weak, the effect of 63 and 65, and of the new compound 75, indicated that these compounds were able to disaggregate Aβ fibrils. The most effective was 63, a (phenylhydrazinylidene)propanedinitrile derivative that also inhibited MAO A (1.65 μM), making it a potential lead for Alzheimer's disease application., European Cooperation in Science and Technology, Grant/Award Numbers: STSM CM1103-29512, STSM D34-05989, STSMCM1103- 29510; Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, Grant/Award Number: FCT -Project PTDC/SAUNEU/ 64151/2006 (MCC); Slovak Research and Development Agency (MM); Slovak Research and Development Agency; Foundation for Science and Technology

The extensive research conducted on monoaminergic systems including dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, histaminergic and, to a lower extent melatonergic systems, continues to expand our current knowledge. The topic has enormous health, economic, scientific and conceptual stakes, with engagement across disciplines covering medicinal chemistry to neuropsychiatric and neurological diseases. This special issue presents scientific updates with in depth analyses on selected aspects of this complicated topic., peer-reviewed

Successful propargylamine drugs such as deprenyl inactivate monoamine oxidase (MAO), a target in multi-faceted approaches to prevent neurodegeneration in the aging population, but the chemical structure and mechanism of the irreversible inhibition are still debated. We characterized the covalent cyanine structure linking the multi-target propargylamine inhibitor ASS234 and the flavin adenine dinucleotide in MAO-A using a combination of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography, spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and computational methods. The partial double bond character of the cyanine chain gives rise to 4 interconverting geometric isomers of the adduct which were chromatographically separated at low temperatures. The configuration of the cyanine linker governs adduct stability with segments of much higher flexibility and rigidity than previously hypothesized. The findings indicate the importance of intramolecular electrostatic interactions in the MAO binding site and provide key information relevant to incorporation of the propargyl moiety into novel multi-target drugs. Based on the structure, we propose a mechanism of MAO inactivation applicable to all propargylamine inhibitors., The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P1- 0005 and P1-0012). We thank COST CA15135 for facilitating collaboration on multi-target compounds and providing support for publication. Part of this work was also supported by the bilateral cooperation between the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts and by COST Action CM1103 which facilitated short research visits in Ljubljana and St Andrews, respectively.We thank Urška Jug, Jan Keuschler, Katja Valjavec, Alja Prah, and Eric F. Franciskovi´cc for critical reading of the manuscript and designing the figures from the quantum calculations

This publication was supported by the project Czech National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH – CZ; no. ED2.1.00/03.0078), Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (no. LD14009), MH CZ - DRO (UHHK, 00179906), the University of Defence of the Czech Republic (long term development plan), MINECO (Government of Spain; Grant SAF2012-33304), the School of Biology at the University of St Andrews, and by COST Action CM1103. In this study, novel indolotacrine analogues have been designed, synthesized and evaluated as potential drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Based on a multi-target-directed ligand approach, novel compounds have been designed to act simultaneously as cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Prepared compounds were also evaluated for their antioxidant, cytotoxic, hepatotoxic and permeability (Blood-Brain Barrier penetration) properties. Indolotacrine 9b (9-methoxy-2,3,4,6-tetrahydro-1H-indolo[2,3-b]quinolin-11-amine) showed the most promising results in the in vitro assessment being a potent inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (IC50 = 1.5 µM), butyrylcholinesterase (IC50 = 2.4 µM) and monoamine oxidase A (IC50 = 0.49 µM) and a weak inhibitor of monoamine oxidase B (IC50 = 53.9 µM). Although its cytotoxic (IC50 = 5.5 ± 0.4 µM) and hepatotoxic (IC50 = 1.22 ± 0.11 µM) profile is not as good as the standard 7-methoxytacrine (IC50 = 63 ± 4 µM and IC50 = 11.50 ± 0.77 µM respectively), the overall improvement in the inhibitory activities and potential to cross blood-brain barrier make indolotacrine 9b a promising lead compound for further development and investigation. Postprint

We thank our funding sources: COST Action CM1103 STSM14325 and the School of Biology at the University of St Andrews to TM; Ghent University (BOF) and the Research Foundation - Flanders (FWO - Vlaanderen) to SM; and the University of East Anglia (AG). Cyclopropylamines, inhibitors of monoamine oxidases (MAO) and lysine-specific demethylase (LSD1), provide a useful structural scaffold for the design of mechanism-based inhibitors for the therapy of depression and cancer. For new compounds with the less common cis relationship and with an alkoxy substituent at the 2-position of the cyclopropyl ring, the apparent affinity from docking revealed little difference between the enantiomers. Using the racemate, kinetic parameters for the reversible and irreversible inhibition of MAO were determined. No inhibition of LSD1 was observed. The reversible inhibition of MAO A gave high IC50 values for most compounds but sub-micromolar values with MAO B. After pre-incubation with the enzyme, the inhibition was irreversible in both MAO A and MAO B and the activity was not restored by dilution. Spectral changes during inactivation of MAO A showed bleaching at 456 nm and an increase at 400 nm, consistent with flavin modification. These derivatives are MAO B-selective mechanism-based inhibitors without inhibition of LSD1. The best inhibitor was cis-N-benzyl-2-methoxycyclopropylamine, with an IC50 of 5 nM for MAO B and 170 nM for MAO A after 30 min preincubation. This cis-cyclopropylamine is over 20-fold more effective than tranylcypromine so could be studied as a lead for selective inhibitors of MAO B that do not inhibit LSD1. Postprint

Monoamine oxidases (MAOs) catalyse the oxidation of neurotransmitter amines and a wide variety of primary, secondary and tertiary amine xenobiotics, including therapeutic drugs. While inhibition of MAO activity in the periphery removes protection from biogenic amines and so is undesirable, inhibition in the brain gives vital antidepressant and behavioural advantages that make MAO a major pharmaceutical target for inhibitor design. In neurodegenerative diseases, MAO inhibitors can help to maintain neurotransmitter levels, making it a common feature in novel multi-target combinations designed to combat Alzheimer's disease, albeit not yet proven clinically. Vital information for inhibitor design comes from an understanding of the structure, mechanism, and kinetics of the catalyst. This review will summarize the kinetic behaviour of MAO A and B and the kinetic evaluation of reversible inhibitors that transiently decrease catalysis. Kinetic parameters and crystal structures have enabled computational approaches to ligand discovery and validation of hits by docking. Kinetics and a wide variety of substrates and inhibitors along with theoretical modelling have also contributed to proposed schemes for the still debated chemical mechanism of amine oxidation. However, most of the marketed MAO drugs are long-lasting irreversible inactivators. The mechanism of irreversible inhibition by hydrazine, cyclopropylamine, and propargylamine drugs will be discussed. The article finishes with some examples of the propargylamine moiety in multi-target ligand design to combat neurodegeneration.

The actions of many drugs involve enzyme inhibition. This is exemplified by the inhibitors of monoamine oxidases (MAO) and the cholinsterases (ChE) that have been used for several pharmacological purposes. This review describes key principles and approaches for the reliable determination of enzyme activities and inhibition as well as some of the methods that are in current use for such studies with these two enzymes. Their applicability and potential pitfalls arising from their inappropriate use are discussed. Since inhibitor potency is frequently assessed in terms of the quantity necessary to give 50% inhibition (the IC50 value), the relationships between this and the mode of inhibition is also considered, in terms of the misleading information that it may provide. Incorporation of more than one functionality into the same molecule to give a multi-target-directed ligands (MTDLs) requires careful assessment to ensure that the specific target effects are not significantly altered and that the kinetic behaviour remains as favourable with the MTDL as it does with the individual components. Such factors will be considered in terms of recently developed MTDLs that combine MAO and ChE inhibitory functions.

The therapy of complex neurodegenerative diseases requires the development of multitarget-directed drugs (MTDs). Novel indole derivatives with inhibitory activity towards acetyl/butyrylcholinesterases and monoamine oxidases A/B as well as the histamine H

This work was supported by the Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic (no. NV15-28967A), the Charles University in Prague (SVV 260 291), COST Action CM1103 (STSM 15879 and 17487) and CA15135, University of Hradec Kralove (Faculty of Informatics and Management, project Excellence 2015), University of St Andrews (undergraduate project funding to D.Z.), Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC; no. BB/J01446X/1), the Alzheimer’s Society and the Barcopel Foundation. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with an excessive accumulation of amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ). Based on the multifactorial nature of AD, preparation of multi-target-directed ligands presents a viable option to address more pathological events at one time. A novel class of asymmetrical disubstituted indolyl thioureas have been designed and synthesized to interact with monoamine oxidase (MAO) and/or amyloid-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD). The design combines the features of known MAO inhibitors scaffolds (e.g. rasagiline or ladostigil) and a frentizole moiety with potential to interact with ABAD. Evaluation against MAO identified several compounds that inhibited in the low to moderate micromolar range. The most promising compound ( 19 ) inhibited human MAO-A and MAOB with IC50 values of 6.34 μM and 0.30 μM, respectively. ABAD activity evaluation did not show any highly potent compound, but the compound series allowed identification of structural features to assist the future development of ABAD inhibitors. Finally, several of the compounds were found to be potent inhibitors of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), preventing the use of the Amplex™ Red assay to detect hydrogen peroxide produced by MAO, highlighting the need for serious precautions when using an enzyme-coupled assay. Postprint

This editorial and the ebook are based upon collaboration under COST Action CM1103 (NEURODRUG), supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology).

Ciproxifan is a well-investigated histamine H3 receptor (H3R) inverse agonist/antagonist, showing an exclusively high species-specific affinity at rodent compared to human H3R. It is well studied as reference compound for H3R in rodent models for neurological diseases connected with neurotransmitter dysregulation, e.g. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or Alzheimer’s disease. In a screening for potential monoamine oxidase A and B inhibition ciproxifan showed efficacy on both enzyme isoforms. Further characterization of ciproxifan revealed IC50 values in a micromolar concentration range for human and rat monoamine oxidases with slight preference for monoamine oxidase B in both species. The inhibition by ciproxifan was reversible for both human isoforms. Regarding inhibitory potency of ciproxifan on rat brain MAO, these findings should be considered, when using high doses in rat models for neurological diseases. As the H3R and monoamine oxidases are all capable of affecting neurotransmitter modulation in brain, we consider dual targeting ligands as interesting approach for treatment of neurological disorders. Since ciproxifan shows only moderate activity at human targets, further investigations in animals are not of primary interest. On the other hand, it may serve as starting point for the development of dual targeting ligands.

The regulation of brain monoamine levels is paramount for cognitive functions, and the monoamine oxidase (MAO A and B) enzymes play a central role in these processes. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the procognitive properties exerted by propargylamine N-(furan-2-ylmethyl)-N-methylprop-2-yn-1-amine (F2MPA) are related to changes in monoamine content via MAO inhibition. In vivo microdialysis and ex vivo amine metabolite measurement demonstrated region-specific alterations in monoamine metabolism that differ from both of the classic MAO A and MAO B inhibitors, clorgyline and l-deprenyl, respectively. Although all the inhibitors (1 and 4 mg/kg) increased cortical serotonin tissue content, only F2MPA increased the levels of cortical noradrenaline. In the striatum, clorgyline (1 mg/kg), but not F2MPA (1 mg/kg), reduced extracellular levels of dopamine metabolites at rest or stimulated by the intrastriatal application of the MAO substrate 3-methoxytyramine. In vitro, F2MPA exhibited a low affinity toward MAO B and MAO A. Nonetheless, it modified the B form of MAO, forming a flavin adduct structurally similar to that with deprenyl. F2MPA was rapidly metabolized in the presence of rat but not human microsomes, producing a hydroxylated derivative. In conclusion, the effect of F2MPA on cognition may arise from monoaminergic changes in the cortex, but the role of MAO in this process is likely to be negligible, consistent with the poor affinity of F2MPA for MAO., Collaborations among authors were enabled by COST Action CM1103, Structure-based drug design for diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases. C.B. thanks Fondazione Cariplo (project no. 2014-0672) and the BioStruct-X program (project no. 10205) for funding synchrotron trips. P.D.D. thanks the support of Idex Bordeaux (PEPS IDEX project 2013).

The therapy of complex neurodegenerative diseases requires the development of multitarget-directed drugs (MTDs). Novel indole derivatives with inhibitory activity towards acetyl/butyrylcholinesterases and monoamine oxidases A/B as well as the histamine H receptor (H3R) were obtained by optimization of the neuroprotectant ASS234 by incorporating generally accepted H3R pharmacophore motifs. These small-molecule hits demonstrated balanced activities at the targets, mostly in the nanomolar concentration range. Additional in vitro studies showed antioxidative neuroprotective effects as well as the ability to penetrate the blood–brain barrier. With this promising in vitro profile, contilisant (at 1 mg kg i.p.) also significantly improved lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive deficits., J.M.C. thanks MINECO (SAF2012-33304 and SAF2015- 65586-R). J.M.C., F.L.M., and A.R. thank UCJC for grants 2015-12, 2014-35, and 2015-21, respectively. J.E. thanks the Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias (FIS) (ISCIII/FEDER) (Programa Miguel Servet: CP14/00008 and PI16/00735) and Fundación Mutua Madrileña. O.S. and J.J. thank MHCZDRO (UHHK 00179906) for support. R.R.R., H.S., and J.M.C. acknowledge the EU COST Actions CM1103 and CM15135. E.P. and H.S. thank the German Research Foundation (DFG; PRO 1405/2-2, PRO 1405/4-1, SFB 1039 A07, and INST208/664-1).

Monoamine oxidase (MAO, EC.1.4.3.4) has been a drug target for 60 years, with the primary rationale of developing drugs to treat neuropsychiatric disorders. The biological importance of MAO is to regulate amine levels is the brain and to metabolize amines and drugs in the periphery. This review of the biochemistry of MAO A and MAO B describes the functional properties of the two enzymes integrated with knowledge of the structures of the many MAOinhibitor complexes published in the last 10 years. The analysis of activity, and the chemical and kinetic mechanisms are discussed. Inhibition studies on human MAO in vitro are now facilitated by assays using readily available materials but the kinetics of MAO involving alternative oxidative pathways and sensitivity to the oxygen concentration mean that careful analysis of the data is required as well as the good practice of determining mechanism of inhibition and kinetic constants. Kinetic constants can then be compared with thermodynamic calculations. Inhibitors bind to both the oxidized and reduced forms of MAO present during turnover so both forms should be considered when using molecular dynamics to facilitate drug design. Interaction of inhibitors with the active site can be detected as changes in the visible spectrum and these changes can provide clues about the flavin adduct formed for irreversible inhibitors or about the proximity to the flavin for reversible inhibitors. Developing areas (knock-out mice for behavior, the imidazoline binding site, and imaging to monitor the activity and the inhibition of MAO in the patient) are mentioned.

Highlights:ASS2324 is a hybrid compound resulting from the juxtaposition of donepezil and the propargylamine PF9601NASS2324 is a multi-target directed propargylamine able to bind to all the AChE/BuChE and MAO A/B enzymesASS2324 shows antioxidant, neuroprotective and suitable permeability propertiesASS2324 restores the scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment to the same extent as donepezil, and is less toxicASS2324 prevents β-amyloid induced aggregation in the cortex of double transgenic miceASS2324 is the most advanced anti-Alzheimer agent for pre-clinical studies that we have identified in our laboratoriesThe complex nature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has prompted the design of Multi-Target-Directed Ligands (MTDL) able to bind to diverse biochemical targets involved in the progress and development of the disease. In this context, we have designed a number of MTD propargylamines (MTDP) showing antioxidant, anti-beta-amyloid, anti-inflammatory, as well as cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition capacities. Here, we describe these properties in the MTDL ASS234, our lead-compound ready to enter in pre-clinical studies for AD, as a new multipotent, permeable cholinesterase/monoamine oxidase inhibitor, able to inhibit Aβ-aggregation, and possessing antioxidant and neuroprotective properties., MU and JM thank MINECO (Spain) for support (Grant SAF2012-33304; SAF2015-65586-R). RR, MU, GE, and JM thank EU (COST Action 1103) for support.

The authors acknowledge the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) for the project UID/QUI/00100/2013, postdoctoral fellowships (RSK and KC). We also thank the doctoral fellowship from Erasmus Namaste program (AH). On continuing our research on new drug candidates for Alzheimer's disease (AD), we have designed, synthesized and evaluated a series of multifunctional trihybrid agents. The design strategy was based on the incorporation of a benzothiazole (BTA) moiety on a series of very recently reported bihybrids, resulting from the conjugation of a tacrine (TAC) with natural based moieties, namely S-allylcysteine (SAC) (garlic constituent) and S-propargylcysteine (SPRC). Thus, in addition to the acetylcholinesterase inhibition (AChEI) and anti-ROS capacity of the bihybrids (TAC-SAC/SPRC), the new trihybrids (TAC-SAC/SPRC-BTA) were endowed with 5-fold capacity for inhibition of the amyloid beta-peptide (Aβ) aggregation. The BTA moiety led also to considerable enhancement of the AChEI on the trihybrids, which molecular modeling suggested to be due to the simultaneous binding to the catalytic active site and peripheral anionic site of AChE. The trihybrids were also assessed for the MAO inhibition, but resulted in lower activity than expected, ascribed to the low accessibility of the propargyl groups to the enzyme active site. Finally, the effects of the compounds on the viability of neuroblastome cells stressedwith Aβ42 and H2O2 showed moderate cell protection. Overall, the performed studies illustrate the importance (and limitations) of enclosing several molecular scaffolds in one molecular entity to allow the modulation of multiple AD targets. Postprint

The search for new monoamine oxidase inhibitors aims to identify potential lead compounds that are more potent and selective than current drugs for use in treating a variety of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative conditions. An integral part of this process is a kinetic examination of monoamine oxidases in the presence of the inhibitor, to determine potency and selectivity and to obtain information on mechanism. To date, kinetic data obtained with a probe substrate have been analysed by fitting to the Michaelis-Menten equation which describes a unireactant process in which velocity is related to substrate concentration in a rectangular hyperbolic manner. In this study, we present evidence that monoamine oxidase activity is often not adequately described by this approach. We outline a novel equation strategy that takes account of substrate and inhibitor binding to oxidised and reduced enzyme forms, and quantifies differences between substrates and inhibitors in this regard. When combined with plate reader-based experimental techniques that allow large numbers of substrate and inhibitor concentrations to be used, and the global nonlinear regression facilities of GraphPad Prism software, this straightforward approach allows more appropriate analyses of monoamine oxidase by non-experts than has previously been possible.

Brain monoamine neurotransmitters, which include dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA), adrenaline (A) serotonin (5-HT) histamine, and melatonin, play a central role in the pathophysiology of all major neuropsychiatric disorders, such as mood disorders, schizophrenia, autism-spectrum disorders, Parkinson disease (PD), epilepsy, and dementias. Ligands for the receptors acted upon by the monoamine neurotransmitters and inhibitors of the enzymes for breakdown, and the reuptake transporters have been developed as drugs, but successful therapy of neuropsychiatric disorders is limited by the high variability of the symptoms and of the responses to treatment. Few drugs are available to address specific subsets of neurological/mental symptoms and none to aid in diagnosis or to stop the progress of neurodegenerative disorders., peer-reviewed

An allosteric binding site with high affinity for imidazoline I 2 ligands has been proposed to exist on monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B). However, enzyme inhibition only occurs at ligand concentrations far higher than are required to saturate this site. We here confirm previous reports that inactivation of recombinant human MAO-B with tranylcypromine results in the formation of a high affinity I 2 site on the enzyme, measured as an increase in binding of [ 3 H]2-BFI. Incubation of MAO-B with 2-phenylethylamine, an endogenous trace amine and MAO-B substrate, resulted in a progressive loss of enzyme activity, increased enzyme mass, distinct spectral changes and, as was observed with tranylcypromine, a parallel increase in high affinity binding of [ 3 H]2-BFI. Kinetic studies of the mechanism by which 2-BFI inhibits MAO-B activity suggested binding of 2-BFI, at micromolar concentrations, to a site distinct from the active site on at least two forms of the pure enzyme, probably corresponding to oxidised and reduced enzyme states. Studies with mutant enzymes revealed a pattern of changes consistent with binding of 2-BFI to the substrate entrance channel of human MAO-B. Structural data confirm that high affinity binding of I 2 ligands occurs within the entrance channel of inactive enzyme, while lower affinity binding at the same location in catalytically active enzyme results in mixed inhibition of MAO-B activity. High affinity I 2 sites may form in vivo due to inactivation of a portion of MAO-B during amine oxidation, while the low affinity I 2 site on active enzyme is a target for novel MAO-B inhibitor drugs.

A variety of approaches have been taken to improve the brain penetration of pharmaceutical agents. The amphipathic character of a compound can improve its interaction with the lipid bilayer within cell membranes, and as a result improve permeability. Fatty acid chains or lipoamino acids of various lengths were attached to tranylcypromine (TCP), in an attempt to improve the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability by increasing the lipophilicity as well as the amphiphatic character of the drug. TCP-FA4, one of the derivatives containing a four carbon alkyl acid chain, showed the greatest improvement in permeability. This molecule was slightly neuroprotective in a beta-amyloid-induced neurodegeneration assay and may also be capable of upregulating brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as indicated by cell culture assays using human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Since decreased levels of BDNF are observed in many CNS disorders, and direct injection of BDNF is not a viable option due to its poor permeability across the BBB, small molecules capable of regulating BDNF that also cross the BBB may be an interesting treatment option.

Carnitine is important for cell function and survival primarily because of its involvement in the multiple equilibria between acylcarnitine and acyl-CoA esters established through the enzymatic activities of the family of carnitine acyltransferases. These have different acyl chain-length specificities and intracellular compartment distributions, and act in synchrony to regulate multiple aspects of metabolism, ranging from fuel-selection and -sensing, to the modulation of the signal transduction mechanisms involved in many homeostatic systems. This review aims to rationalise the extensive range of experimental and clinical data that have been obtained through the pharmacological use of L-carnitine and its short-chain acylesters, over the past two decades, in terms of the basic biochemical mechanisms involved in the effects of carnitine on the various cellular acyl-CoA pools in health and disease.

Background and purpose: Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) are known to cause serotonin toxicity (ST) when administered with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI). Methylene blue (methylthionium chloride, MB), a redox dye in clinical use, has been reported to precipitate ST in patients using SSRI. MB was assessed for MAO inhibition and so for its potential to precipitate ST. Experimental approach: Inhibition of purified human MAO was quantified using kinetic assays and visible spectral changes to study the interactions of MB with MAO A. Key results: MB was a potent (tight binding) inhibitor for MAO A. It also inhibited MAO B but at much higher concentration. Interactions of MB with the active site of MAO A were confirmed by its action both as an oxidising substrate and as a one-electron reductant. Conclusions and implications: MB is a potent reversible inhibitor of MAO A with implications for gut uptake of amines when administered orally. At concentrations reported in the literature after intravenous administration, MAO B would be partially inhibited but MAO A would be completely inhibited. This inhibition of MAO A would be expected to lead to perturbations of 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism and hence account for ST occurring when administered to patients on SSRI treatment. British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 152, 946–951; doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707430; published online 27 August 2007

It has been accepted that, as required mechanistically, the neutral form of the amine is the substrate for monoamine oxidase, despite the amine pK (a) of above 9.5. The pH dependence of the kinetic parameters for kynuramine oxidation by purified human MAO-A and for phenylethylamine oxidation by MAO-B in granulocytes at pH values from 5 to 10 was consistent with the protonated amine being used. Deprotonation of a group of pK (a) = 7.1 in MAO-B and pK (a) = 7.5 +/- 0.1 (n = 4) in MAO-A was important for efficient catalysis. The K(i) values for two oxazolidinone inhibitors of MAO-A gave opposite pH-dependence indicating that the uncharged form of each inhibitor bound better than the charged form. Decreased pH induced a blue shift in the spectral maximum of MAO-A indicative of a more hydrophobic environment around the flavin, and also influenced the redox properties of the flavin.

The two forms of monoamine oxidase, monoamine oxidase A and monoamine oxidase B, have been associated with imidazoline-binding sites (type 2). Imidazoline ligands saturate the imidazoline-binding sites at nanomolar concentrations, but inhibit monoamine oxidase activity only at micromolar concentrations, suggesting two different binding sites [Ozaita A, Olmos G, Boronat MA, Lizcano JM, Unzeta M & Garcia-Sevilla JA (1997) Br J Pharmacol121, 901-912]. When purified human monoamine oxidase A was used to examine the interaction with the active site, inhibition by guanabenz, 2-(2-benzofuranyl)-2-imidazoline and idazoxan was competitive with kynuramine as substrate, giving K(i) values of 3 microM, 26 microM and 125 microM, respectively. Titration of monoamine oxidase A with imidazoline ligands induced spectral changes that were used to measure the binding affinities for guanabenz (19.3 +/- 3.9 microM) and 2-(2-benzofuranyl)-2-imidazoline (49 +/- 8 microM). Only one type of binding site was detected. Agmatine, a putative endogenous ligand for some imidazoline sites, reduced monoamine oxidase A under anaerobic conditions, indicating that it binds close to the flavin in the active site. Flexible docking studies revealed multiple orientations within the large active site, including orientations close to the flavin that would allow oxidation of agmatine.

Recently developed multi-targeted ligands are novel drug candidates able to interact with monoamine oxidase A and B; acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase; or with histamine N-methyltransferase and histamine H3-receptor (H3R). These proteins are drug targets in the treatment of depression, Alzheimer's disease, obsessive disorders, and Parkinson's disease. A probabilistic method, the Parzen-Rosenblatt window approach, was used to build a >predictor> model using data collected from the ChEMBL database. The model can be used to predict both the primary pharmaceutical target and off-targets of a compound based on its structure. Molecular structures were represented based on the circular fingerprint methodology. The same approach was used to build a >predictor> model from the DrugBank dataset to determine the main pharmacological groups of the compound. The study of off-target interactions is now recognised as crucial to the understanding of both drug action and toxicology. Primary pharmaceutical targets and off-targets for the novel multi-target ligands were examined by use of the developed cheminformatic method. Several multi-target ligands were selected for further study, as compounds with possible additional beneficial pharmacological activities. The cheminformatic targets identifications were in agreement with four 3D-QSAR (H3R/D1R/D2R/5-HT2aR) models and by in vitro assays for serotonin 5-HT1a and 5-HT2a receptor binding of the most promising ligand (71/MBA-VEG8).

The structure of carnitine acetyltransferase revealed a putative binding site for longer acyl chains but access was blocked by methionine 564 (G. Jogl and L. Tong (2003) Cell 112, 113–122). The equivalent residue in all long chain carnitine acyltransferases is a conserved glycine. Mutation of glycine 553 to methionine in bovine COT resulted in loss of activity with all acyl-CoA substrates except acetyl-CoA, supporting the hypothesis that the methionine blocks access for longer acyl chains. The kinetic characteristics of acetyl transfer to carnitine were identical in the native and mutant enzyme. However, rapid acetyl-CoA hydrolysis in the mutant but not the wild-type indicates perturbation of the catalytic site.

Oxazolidinones represent a new and promising class of antibacterial agents. Current research in this area is mainly concentrated on improving the safety profile and the antibacterial spectrum. Many oxazolidinones, including linezolid (marketed as Zyvox), are inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), which presents an undesired side effect. Recently, it was found that the 1,2,3-triazole is a good replacement for the conventional acetamide functionality found in oxazolidinones. We now disclose the finding that 1,2,3-triazoles bearing a substituent like methyl, small substituted methyl, bromo, or a linear (sp-hybridized) group at the 4 position (compounds such as 5, 16, 19, and 21) are good antibacterials with reduced or no activity, within the detection limit of the assay, against MAO-A. The results are especially promising for the development of oxazolidinones with an improved safety profile. The MAO-A SAR can be rationalized on the basis of docking studies to a MAO-A/MAO-B homology model.

Cells contain limited and sequestered pools of Coenzyme A (CoA) that are essential for activating carboxylate metabolites. Some acyl-CoA esters have high metabolic and signalling impact, so control of CoA ester concentrations is important. This and transfer of the activated acyl moieties between cell compartments without wasting energy on futile cycles of hydrolysis and resynthesis is achieved through the carnitine system. The location, properties of and deficiencies in the carnitine acyltransferases are described in relation to their influence on the CoA pools in the cell and, hence, on metabolism. The protection of free CoA pools in disease states is achieved by excretion of acyl-carnitine so that carnitine supplementation is required where unwanted acyl groups build up, such as in some inherited disorders of fatty acid oxidation. Acetyl-carnitine improves cognition in the brain and propionyl-carnitine improves cardiac performance in heart disease and diabetes. The therapeutic effects of carnitine and its esters are discussed in relation to the integrative influence of the carnitine system across CoA pools. Recent evidence for sequestered pools of activated acetate for synthesis of malonyl-CoA, for the synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids and for the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 to regulate fatty acid oxidation is reviewed.

The structure of monoamine oxidase B revealed three aromatic amino acid residues within contact distance of the flavin cofactor and a large number of aromatic residues in the substrate binding site. Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy can detect alterations in the environment of aromatic residues as a result of ligand binding or redox changes. CD spectra of MAO A indicate that a small inhibitor such d-amphetamine perturbs the aromatic residues very little, but binding of the larger pirlindole (2,3,3a,4,5,6-hexahydro-8-methyl-1H-pyrazino[3,2,1-j,k]carbazole hydrochloride) causes spectral changes consistent with the alteration of the environment of tyrosine and tryptophan residues in particular. Reduction of the flavin cofactor induces large enhancement of the CD signals in the aromatic region (260-310 nm). When covalent modification of the flavin by clorgyline accompanies reduction, the perturbation is even greater. In contrast to the static picture offered by crystallography, this study reveals changes in the aromatic cage on ligand binding and suggests that reduction of the cofactor substantially alters the environment of aromatic residues presumably near the flavin. In addition, the covalently modified reduced MAO A shows significant differences from the substrate-reduced enzyme.