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Binocular disparity provides critical information about three-dimensional (3D) structures to support perception and action. In the past decade significant progress has been made in uncovering human brain areas engaged in the processing of binocular disparity signals. Yet, the fine-scale brain processing underlying 3D perception remains unknown. Here, we use ultra-high-field (7T) functional imaging at submillimeter resolution to examine fine-scale BOLD fMRI signals involved in 3D perception. In particular, we sought to interrogate the local circuitry involved in disparity processing by sampling fMRI responses at different positions relative to the cortical surface (i.e., across cortical depths corresponding to layers). We tested for representations related to 3D perception by presenting participants (male and female, N = 8) with stimuli that enable stable stereoscopic perception [i.e., correlated random dot stereograms (RDS)] versus those that do not (i.e., anticorrelated RDS). Using multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA), we demonstrate cortical depth-specific representations in areas V3A and V7 as indicated by stronger pattern responses for correlated than for anticorrelated stimuli in upper rather than deeper layers. Examining informational connectivity, we find higher feedforward layer-to-layer connectivity for correlated than anticorrelated stimuli between V3A and V7. Further, we observe disparity-specific feedback from V3A to V1 and from V7 to V3A. Our findings provide evidence for the role of V3A as a key nexus for disparity processing, which is implicated in feedforward and feedback signals related to the perceptual estimation of 3D structures. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Binocular vision plays a significant role in supporting our interactions with the surrounding environment. The fine-scale neural mechanisms that underlie the brain9s skill in extracting 3D structures from binocular signals are poorly understood. Here, we capitalize on recent advances in ultra-high-field functional imaging to interrogate human brain circuits involved in 3D perception at submillimeter resolution. We provide evidence for the role of area V3A as a key nexus for disparity processing, which is implicated in feedforward and feedback signals related to the perceptual estimation of 3D structures from binocular signals. These fine-scale measurements help bridge the gap between animal neurophysiology and human fMRI studies investigating cross-scale circuits, from micro circuits to global brain networks for 3D perception.

Human visual cortex contains many retinotopic and category-specific regions. These brain regions have been the focus of a large body of functional magnetic resonance imaging research, significantly expanding our understanding of visual processing. As studying these regions requires accurate localization of their cortical location, researchers perform functional localizer scans to identify these regions in each individual. However, it is not always possible to conduct these localizer scans. Here, we developed and validated a functional region of interest (ROI) atlas of early visual and category-selective regions in human ventral and lateral occipito-temporal cortex. Results show that for the majority of functionally defined ROIs, cortex-based alignment results in lower between-subject variability compared to nonlinear volumetric alignment. Furthermore, we demonstrate that 1) the atlas accurately predicts the location of an independent dataset of ventral temporal cortex ROIs and other atlases of place selectivity, motion selectivity, and retinotopy. Next, 2) we show that the majority of voxel within our atlas is responding mostly to the labeled category in a left-out subject cross-validation, demonstrating the utility of this atlas. The functional atlas is publicly available (download.brainvoyager.com/data/visfAtlas.zip) and can help identify the location of these regions in healthy subjects as well as populations (e.g., blind people, infants) in which functional localizers cannot be run.

Population receptive field (pRF) modeling is a popular fMRI method to map the retinotopic organization of the human brain. While fMRI-based pRF maps are qualitatively similar to invasively recorded single-cell receptive fields in animals, it remains unclear what neuronal signal they represent. We addressed this question in awake nonhuman primates comparing whole-brain fMRI and large-scale neurophysiological recordings in areas V1 and V4 of the visual cortex. We examined the fits of several pRF models based on the fMRI blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal, multi-unit spiking activity (MUA), and local field potential (LFP) power in different frequency bands. We found that pRFs derived from BOLD-fMRI were most similar to MUA-pRFs in V1 and V4, while pRFs based on LFP gamma power also gave a good approximation. fMRI-based pRFs thus reliably reflect neuronal receptive field properties in the primate brain. In addition to our results in V1 and V4, the whole-brain fMRI measurements revealed retinotopic tuning in many other cortical and subcortical areas with a consistent increase in pRF size with increasing eccentricity, as well as a retinotopically specific deactivation of default mode network nodes similar to previous observations in humans. ispartof: ELIFE vol:10 ispartof: location:England status: published

The robust steady‐state cortical activation elicited by flickering visual stimulation has been exploited by a wide range of scientific studies. As the fundamental neural response inherits the spectral properties of the gazed flickering, the paradigm has been used to chart cortical characteristics and their relation to pathologies. However, despite its widespread adoption, the underlying neural mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we show that the fundamental response is preceded by high‐gamma (55–125 Hz) oscillations which are also synchronised to the gazed frequency. Using a subdural recording of the primary and associative visual cortices of one human subject, we demonstrate that the latencies of the high‐gamma and fundamental components are highly correlated on a single‐trial basis albeit that the latter is consistently delayed by approximately 55 ms. These results corroborate previous reports that top‐down feedback projections are involved in the generation of the fundamental response, but, in addition, we show that trial‐to‐trial variability in fundamental latency is paralleled by a highly similar variability in high‐gamma latency. Pathology‐ or paradigm‐induced alterations in steady‐state responses could thus originate either from deviating visual gamma responses or from aberrations in the neural feedback mechanism. Experiments designed to tease apart the two processes are expected to provide deeper insights into the studied paradigm., The robust steady‐state cortical activation elicited by flickering visual stimulation has been exploited by a wide range of neuroscientific and clinical studies, but the neural mechanisms behind its generation are not well understood. In this manuscript, we show that the fundamental response is preceded by high‐gamma (55–125 Hz) oscillations which are also synchronised to the gazed frequency. Using a subdural recording of the primary and associative visual cortices of one human subject, we demonstrate that both latencies of the gamma and fundamental components are highly correlated on a single‐trial basis albeit that the latter is consistently delayed by approximately 55 ms.

Damage to the visual system can result in (a partial) loss of vision, in response to which the visual system may functionally reorganize. Yet the timing, extent, and conditions under which this occurs are not well understood. Hence, studies in individuals with diverse congenital and acquired conditions and using various methods are needed to better understand this. In the present study, we examined the visual system of a young girl who received a hemispherectomy at the age of three and who consequently suffered from hemianopia. We did so by evaluating the corticocortical and retinocortical projections in the visual system of her remaining hemisphere. For the examination of these aspects, we analyzed the characteristics of the connective fields (“neural-referred” receptive fields) based on both resting-state (RS) and retinotopy data. The evaluation of RS data, reflecting brain activity independent from visual stimulation, is of particular interest as it is not biased by the patient’s atypical visual percept. We found that, primarily when the patient was at rest, the connective fields between V1 and both early and late visual areas were larger than normal. These abnormally large connective fields could be a sign either of functional reorganization or of unmasked suppressive feedback signals that are normally masked by interhemispheric signals. Furthermore, we confirmed our previous finding of abnormal retinocortical or “stimulus-referred” projections in both early and late visual areas. More specifically, we found an enlarged foveal representation and smaller population receptive fields. These differences could also be a sign of functional reorganization or rather a reflection of the interruption visual information that travels, via the remainder of the visual pathway, from the retina to the visual cortex. To conclude, while we do find indications for relatively subtle changes in visual field map properties, we found no evidence of large-scale reorganization—even though the patient could have benefitted from this. Our work suggests that at a later developmental stage, large-scale reorganization of the visual system no longer occurs, while small-scale properties may still change to facilitate adaptive processing and viewing strategies.

Blindsight refers to the ability of some patients with destruction of the primary visual cortex (V1) to respond to stimuli presented in their clinically blind visual field despite lack of visual awareness. Here we tested a rare and well-known patient with blindsight following hemispherectomy, DR, who has had the entire cortex in the right hemisphere removed, and in whom the right superior colliculus is the only post-chiasmatic visual structure remaining intact. Compared to more traditional cases of blindsight after damage confined to V1, the study of blindsight in hemispherectomy has offered the invaluable opportunity to examine directly two outstanding questions: the contribution of the intact hemisphere to visual processing without awareness, and the nature of plastic and compensatory changes in these remaining contralesional visual areas. Population receptive field (pRF) mapping was used to define retinotopic maps, delineate the boundaries between the visual areas, examine changes in the sizes of receptive field centres within each visual area, and their variability as a function of eccentricity. Aside from the dorsal visual areas showing blurred borders between V2d and V3d, not otherwise detected with perimetric mapping, the retinotopic maps of DR did not differ substantially from those of three matched healthy controls. Interestingly, those dorsal compartments showed a significant increase in the RF sizes toward values typical of higher-order processing cortices, while no differences were observed in the corresponding ventral visual areas. Findings showed that whereas receptive field sizes at foveal and parafoveal eccentricities (≤ 4°) were not measurably altered, the pRF size increased by ~ 270% at 4-6° of eccentricity, and the size difference reached ~ 300% between 8° and 10°. We interpret these findings to suggest that an increase in pRF sizes could be indicative of cerebral plasticity involving the retinotopic reorganization of the dorsal visual areas.

The human ventral visual stream consists of several areas that are considered processing stages essential for perception and recognition. A fundamental microanatomical feature differentiating areas is cytoarchitecture, which refers to the distribution, size, and density of cells across cortical layers. Because cytoarchitectonic structure is measured in 20-micron-thick histological slices of postmortem tissue, it is difficult to assess (a) how anatomically consistent these areas are across brains and (b) how they relate to brain parcellations obtained with prevalent neuroimaging methods, acquired at the millimeter and centimeter scale. Therefore, the goal of this study was to (a) generate a cross-validated cytoarchitectonic atlas of the human ventral visual stream on a whole brain template that is commonly used in neuroimaging studies and (b) to compare this atlas to a recently published retinotopic parcellation of visual cortex (Wang et al., 2014). To achieve this goal, we generated an atlas of eight cytoarchitectonic areas: four areas in the occipital lobe (hOc1-hOc4v) and four in the fusiform gyrus (FG1-FG4), then we tested how the different alignment techniques affect the accuracy of the resulting atlas. Results show that both cortex-based alignment (CBA) and nonlinear volumetric alignment (NVA) generate an atlas with better cross-validation performance than affine volumetric alignment (AVA). Additionally, CBA outperformed NVA in 6/8 of the cytoarchitectonic areas. Finally, the comparison of the cytoarchitectonic atlas to a retinotopic atlas shows a clear correspondence between cytoarchitectonic and retinotopic areas in the ventral visual stream. The successful performance of CBA suggests a coupling between cytoarchitectonic areas and macroanatomical landmarks in the human ventral visual stream, and furthermore, that this coupling can be utilized for generating an accurate group atlas. In addition, the coupling between cytoarchitecture and retinotopy highlights the potential use of this atlas in understanding how anatomical features contribute to brain function. We make this cytoarchitectonic atlas freely available in both BrainVoyager and FreeSurfer formats (http://vpnl.stanford.edu/vcAtlas). The availability of this atlas will enable future studies to link cytoarchitectonic organization to other parcellations of the human ventral visual stream with potential to advance the understanding of this pathway in typical and atypical populations.

Human visual cortex contains maps of the visual field. Much research has been dedicated to answering whether and when these visual field maps change if critical components of the visual circuitry are damaged. Here, we first provide a focused mini-review of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies that have evaluated the human cortical visual field maps in the face of retinal lesions, brain injury, and atypical retinocortical projections. We find that there is a fair body of research that has found abnormal fMRI activity, but also that this abnormal activity does not necessarily stem from cortical remapping. The abnormal fMRI activity can often be explained in terms of task effects and/or the uncovering of normally hidden system dynamics. We then present the case of a 16-year-old patient who lost the entire left cerebral hemisphere at age three for treatment of chronic focal encephalitis (Rasmussen syndrome) and intractable epilepsy. Using an fMRI retinotopic mapping procedure and population receptive field (pRF) modeling, we found that (1) despite the long period since the hemispherectomy, the retinotopic organization of early visual cortex remained unaffected by the removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere, and (2) the intact lateral occipital cortex contained an exceptionally large representation of the center of the visual field. The same method also indicates that the neuronal receptive fields in these lateral occipital brain regions are extraordinarily small. These features are clearly abnormal, but again they do not necessarily stem from cortical remapping. For example, the abnormal features can also be explained by the notion that the hemispherectomy took place during a critical period in the development of the lateral occipital cortex and therefore arrested its normal development. Thus, caution should be exercised when interpreting abnormal fMRI activity as a marker of cortical remapping; there are often other explanations. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Human visual cortex contains maps of the visual field. Much research has been dedicated to answering whether and when these visual field maps change if critical components of the visual circuitry are damaged. Here, we first provide a focused mini-review of the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies that have evaluated the human cortical visual field maps in the face of retinal lesions, brain injury, and atypical retinocortical projections. We find that there is a fair body of research that has found abnormal fMRI activity, but also that this abnormal activity does not necessarily stem from cortical remapping. The abnormal fMRI activity can often be explained in terms of task effects and/or the uncovering of normally hidden system dynamics. We then present the case of a 16-year-old patient who lost the entire left cerebral hemisphere at age three for treatment of chronic focal encephalitis (Rasmussen syndrome) and intractable epilepsy. Using an fMRI retinotopic mapping procedure and population receptive field (pRF) modeling, we found that (1) despite the long period since the hemispherectomy, the retinotopic organization of early visual cortex remained unaffected by the removal of an entire cerebral hemisphere, and (2) the intact lateral occipital cortex contained an exceptionally large representation of the center of the visual field. The same method also indicates that the neuronal receptive fields in these lateral occipital brain regions are extraordinarily small. These features are clearly abnormal, but again they do not necessarily stem from cortical remapping. For example, the abnormal features can also be explained by the notion that the hemispherectomy took place during a critical period in the development of the lateral occipital cortex and therefore arrested its normal development. Thus, caution should be exercised when interpreting abnormal fMRI activity as a marker of cortical remapping; there are often other explanations. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal.

Embryonic and regenerating retinal axons in fish are able to seek out their retinotopic target sites in the tectum. Neither a specific preordering of axons in the retinotectal pathway nor activity-dependent axon-target interactions are required for appropriate previous axonal targeting. Axon-target recognition appears to be predominantly mediated by positional cell surface markers. The discrimination of position-dependent differences by retinal axons in a special in vitro assay is consistent with this concept.To understand retinal previous axonal regeneration we have analyzed the glial cells of the fish optic nerve and the expression of growth-associated cell surface molecules on the regenerating axons. The surfaces of the glial cells identified as oligodendrocytes are excellent substrates for the elongation of regenerating axons. Raising monoclonal antibodies we have found 3 cell surface proteins specific for growing axons. In the normal adult goldfish optic nerve, these proteins are only expressed by the few new axons from the newborn ganglion cells at the retinal margin. They are re-expressed on all axons during regeneration. A known cell surface molecule, NCAM, is expressed in a similar, specific spatiotemporal pattern on the fish retinal axons and may in normal nerves contribute to the establishment of the age-related fiber association. Whether the re-expression of NCAM and the antigens detected by the novel monoclonal antibodies are functionally involved in previous axonal growth and regeneration remains to be investigated.

It is investigated how the neuromagnetic source localization and superposition of responses reveal retinotopic organization of extrastriate cortex in humans.

The present study describes the ipsilateral and contralateral cortico-cortical and cortico-thalamic connectivity of the temporal visual areas 20a and 20b in the ferret using standard anatomical tract-tracing methods. The two temporal visual areas are strongly interconnected, but area 20a is primarily connected to the occipital visual areas, whereas area 20b maintains more widespread connections with the occipital, parietal and suprasylvian visual areas and the secondary auditory cortex. The callosal connectivity, although homotopic, consists mainly of very weak anterograde labelling which was more widespread in area 20a than area 20b. Although areas 20a and 20b are well connected with the visual dorsal thalamus, the injection into area 20a resulted in more anterograde label, whereas more retrograde label was observed in the visual thalamus following the injection into area 20b. Most interestingly, comparisons to previous connectional studies of cat areas 20a and 20b reveal a common pattern of connectivity of the temporal visual cortex in carnivores, where the posterior parietal cortex and the central temporal region (PMLS) provide network points required for dorsal and ventral stream interaction enroute to integration in the prefrontal cortex. This pattern of network connectivity is not dissimilar to that observed in primates, which highlights the ferret as a useful animal model to understand visual sensory integration between the dorsal and ventral streams. This data will contribute to the Ferretome (www.ferretome.org) to facilitate cross species analysis of brain connectomes and wiring principles of the brain.