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This section considers the recent resurgence of regulatory interest in the field of assisted reproductive technology (ART) practices focusing on the new legislative framework in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). It provides an overview of the Australian regulatory framework in this field and considers how the new legislation in the ACT sits alongside this framework. A detailed overview of the key provisions of the ACT legislation is provided, before considering whether the legislation goes far enough in addressing some of the more controversial issues in the field of ART., Competing Interests: None.

In eusocial insects, chemical communication is crucial for mediating many aspects of social activities, especially the regulation of reproduction. Though queen signals are known to decrease ovarian activation of workers in highly eusocial species, little is known about their evolution. In contrast, some primitively eusocial species are thought to control worker reproduction through physical aggression by the queen rather than via pheromones, suggesting the evolutionary establishment of chemical signals with more derived sociality. However, studies supporting this hypothesis are largely missing. Socially polymorphic halictid bees, such as Halictus rubicundus, with social and solitary populations in both Europe and North America, offer excellent opportunities to illuminate the evolution of caste-specific signals. Here we compared the chemical profiles of social and solitary populations from both continents and tested whether (i) population or social level affect chemical dissimilarity and whether (ii) caste-specific patterns reflect a conserved queen signal. Our results demonstrate unique odor profiles of European and North American populations, mainly due to different isomers of n-alkenes and macrocyclic lactones; chemical differences may be indicative of phylogeographic drift in odor profiles. We also found common compounds overproduced in queens compared to workers in both populations, indicating a potential conserved queen signal. However, North American populations have a lower caste-specific chemical dissimilarity than European populations which raises the question if both use different mechanisms of regulating reproductive division of labor. Therefore, our study gives new insights into the evolution of eusocial behavior and the role of chemical communication in the inhibition of reproduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primitively eusocial insects exhibit reproductive division of labour such that one or a small number of individuals monopolize reproduction while the remaining function as non-reproductive workers. They also exhibit non-reproductive division of labour such that some workers primarily perform the extra-nidal tasks of foraging, while others primarily perform the intra-nidal tasks of feeding larvae, building the nest and other nest maintenance activities. In some species, queens regulate both reproductive as well as non-reproductive division of labour by means of their dominance behavior toward the workers. Here we show that in the primitively eusocial species R. cyathiformis, (1) the queen shows significantly more aggression towards the potential queen (PQ) than to the rest of the workers; (2) the PQ shows significantly more aggression towards the workers than they show to each other; (3) the activities of the workers such as bringing food and feeding the larvae continue unabated in the absence of the queen; (4) the amount of dominance received by a worker does not predict her rate of foraging; (5) there is a positive correlation between workers' rates of bringing food and the rates at which they themselves feed the larvae. We suggest that while queen (along with PQ) regulates reproductive division of labour, dominance behavior is not used to regulate the non-reproductive activities of the workers such as bringing food and feeding the larvae; these are self-regulated by individual workers by themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Normal estrous cycle is crucial for porcine reproduction, and microRNA is closely related to regulation of estrous cycle in porcine ovaries. In this study, we found that the expression of miR‐214 in porcine ovaries was higher than in many other tissues, and miR‐21 expression in ovaries was significantly higher than in the uterus and pituitary. Meanwhile, miR‐21 was upregulated and miR‐214 was downregulated in the ovaries of high litter size (YH) pigs compared with low litter size (YL) pigs. Moreover, the lowest expression of miR‐21 and miR‐214 occurred on Days 14 and 7 of the estrous cycle and was expressed at greater levels in the granulosa cells of subordinate follicles than in dominant follicles on Day 3 of the estrous cycle. Bioinformatics analysis showed that miR‐21 and miR‐214 might target several genes that involved in the mTOR signaling, apoptosis, and steroid biosynthesis pathways, and they play important roles in maintaining the porcine estrous cycle. The qPCR and western blot analysis indicated that miR‐214 inhibited the expression of SCARB1 gene in the transcriptional level, but not affected the SCARB1 gene's protein level. Our research findings indicated that miR‐21 and miR‐214 played important roles in reproduction regulation during porcine estrous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The only requirement for a design to qualify for copyright protection in the EU is originality, according to the highly anticipated decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Cofemel v G-Star Raw (C-683/17) on 12 September 2019. The Court s judgment on the interpretation of the reproduction right under art.2(a) of Directive 2001/29 EC (the InfoSoc Directive) will be welcomed by designers across the EU and may well require amendments to be made to the national copyright laws of certain EU Member States, including in particular the UK. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, although some microRNAs (miRNAs) have been discovered in the holometabolism insect Tribolium castaneum , large numbers of miRNAs still require investigation. Knocking down Dicer-1 ( Dcr-1 ) and Argonaute-1 ( Ago-1 ) in late larvae impaired miRNA synthesis, affected the juvenile hormone pathway by up-regulating Methoprene-tolerant ( Met ) and Krüppel-homolog1 ( Kr-h1 ) transcript levels, and resulted in a series of defects in T. castaneum development and metamorphosis. Thus, high-throughput Illumina/Solexa sequencing was performed with a mixed sample of eight key developmental stages of T. castaneum . In total, 1154 unique miRNAs were discovered containing 274 conserved miRNAs belong to 68 miRNA families, 108 known candidate miRNAs and 772 novel miRNAs. Genome locus analysis showed that miRNA clusters are more abundant in T. castaneum than other species. The results indicated that RNAi of Dcr-1 and Ago-1 in T. castaneum resulted in miRNA-induced metamorphosis defects. Furthermore, large numbers of novel miRNAs were discovered in T. castaneum and localized to T. castaneum genome loci. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) provides several standard test methods for the environmental hazard assessment of chemicals, mainly based on primary producers, arthropods, and fish. In April 2016, two new test guidelines with two mollusc species representing different reproductive strategies were approved by OECD member countries. One test guideline describes a 28-day reproduction test with the parthenogenetic New Zealand mudsnail Potamopyrgus antipodarum. The main endpoint of the test is reproduction, reflected by the embryo number in the brood pouch per female. The development of a new OECD test guideline involves several phases including inter-laboratory validation studies to demonstrate the robustness of the proposed test design and the reproducibility of the test results. Therefore, a ring test of the reproduction test with P. antipodarum was conducted including eight laboratories with the test substances trenbolone and prochloraz and results are presented here. Most laboratories could meet test validity criteria, thus demonstrating the robustness of the proposed test protocol. Trenbolone did not have an effect on the reproduction of the snails at the tested concentration range (nominal: 10-1000 ng/L). For prochloraz, laboratories produced similar EC and NOEC values, showing the inter-laboratory reproducibility of results. The average EC and NOEC values for reproduction (with coefficient of variation) were 26.2 µg/L (61.7%) and 29.7 µg/L (32.9%), respectively. This ring test shows that the mudsnail reproduction test is a well-suited tool for use in the chronic aquatic hazard and risk assessment of chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The roles of leptin, nesfatin-1 and kisspeptin in the regulation of food intake and/or reproduction are well known; however, the interactions between these hormones remain unclear, especially in humans. The aim of this study was to determine the roles of leptin, nesfatin-1 and kisspeptin in pre- and postmenopausal obese and non-obese women. The study included 83 women who were divided into four groups based on menopausal status and body mass index. The leptin level was significantly higher in the obese women than in the non-obese women (p < 0.05), but did not differ significantly between pre- and postmenopausal women (p > 0.05). The nesfatin-1 and kisspeptin-1 levels did not differ significantly between any of the study groups (p > 0.05). The present findings show that nesfatin-1 and kisspeptin levels are not affected by obesity or menopausal status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian literature reports the modulation of ‘photoperiodic gonadal responses’ by the temporal phase relation of serotonergic and dopaminergic oscillations in Japanese quail. But, the modulation of ‘light colour responses’ by the temporal synergism of neural oscillations is not yet known. Hence the present study was designed to investigate the interaction of the light colour (blue, red) and the phase relation of neural oscillations in the reproductive regulation of Japanese quail. Three week old male Japanese quail were divided into two groups and maintained under a long day length condition (16 L:8D) and were exposed to a 30 lux intensity of blue LED (light emitting diode) (B LED) and a red LED light (R LED). At the age of 15.5 weeks, quail of one subgroup of B LED were injected with serotonin precursor (5-HTP) and dopamine precursor ( l -DOPA) 12 hrs apart (B LED + 12-hr) and those of the R LED group were injected with the same drugs (5 mg/100 g body weight over a period of thirteen days) but 8 hrs apart (R LED + 8-hr). The remaining subgroups of both the light colour groups (B LED & R LED) received normal saline twice daily and served as controls. Cloacal gland volume was recorded weekly until 35.5 weeks of age when the study was terminated and reproductive parameters (testicular volume, GSI, seminiferous tubule diameter and plasma testosterone) were assessed. Results indicate that the 8-hr temporal phase relation of neural oscillations suppresses reproductive activity even during the photosensitive phase of the red light exposed quail (R LED + 8-hr) compare to the R LED controls. On the other hand, the 12-hr temporal phase relation stimulates the gonadal development of the B LED + 12-hr quail compared to the B LED controls which after completing one cycle entered into a regressive phase and remained sexually quiescent. These experiments suggest that the temporal phase relations of circadian neural oscillations, in addition to modulating the classical photoperiodic responses, may also modulate the gonadal responses to blue (suppressive) and red (stimulatory) light. These studies led us to conclude that the temporal phase relation of serotonergic and dopaminergic oscillations is not only an important regulator of avian reproduction but may also override the classical effects of light colours in Japanese quail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article talks about contemporary fertility decline in developing countries and the contribution of changes in birth spacing to the decline which has not been broadly researched. Topics discussed include empirical evidence gathered suggesting transitional populations commonly make deliberate efforts to delay the next birth, and exceptions to this generalization which include African reproductive regimes varying from the West and a third form of fertility motivation called postponement.

The article presents the transcript of a panel discussion between the editor of the journal, Eliza E. Canty-Jones and midwives Holly Scholles, Sarah Taylor, and Mary Solares at the Regulating Birth symposium by the Oregon Historical Society that was held on November 17, 2015. Topics discussed include traditional midwifery, how and when each of them started midwifery, and the signing of the 1993 bill providing for voluntary midwifery licensure in Oregon.

The article presents a speech by Shafia M. Monroe, founder of the non-profit organization International Center for Traditional Childbearing [ICTC] in Portland, Oregon, delivered at the Oregon Historical Society's Symposium, on November 17, 2015. Topics of the speech included regulation of birth, the alleged lack of black midwives in Oregon in 1991, and questions she asked to three women panelists about how the birthing of Black women has been regulated in their personal experience.

The article talks about birth as a social interaction, focusing on its history in Oregon. Topics discussed include the regulation of birth in Oregon, how practices and experiences of childbirth have developed and changed in Oregon, and the author's own experience with her first child's home birth in Rhode Island which was considered illegal at the time.

During development and reproduction the response to ecdysteroids is mediated by a heterodimeric receptor complex comprising the retinoid X receptor/ultraspiracle (RXR/USP) and the ecdysone receptor (EcR). Here, the role of these receptors in the endocrine control of reproduction is examined in the cockroach Diploptera punctata . We report the sequence of four DpRXR and three DpEcR splice variants, including the first description of a Drosophila EcRB2 -like isoform in a hemimetabolous insect. DpRXR and DpEcR are broadly expressed in the tissues of adult females, with relatively high transcript levels in the corpora allata (CA), nervous tissue and ovary. Developmental profiling revealed an inverse correlation between DpRXR and DpEcR expression and the activity of the CA. RNAi-mediated depletion of DpRXR and DpEcR did not affect oocyte growth, but inhibited oviposition and impaired chorion formation. Retained oocytes exhibited a degenerating follicular epithelium and were slowly resorbed. Treated animals showed significantly higher rates of JH biosynthesis and a decrease in ecdysteroid titers at the end of vitellogenesis. Reduction of DpRXR and DpEcR expression resulted in an upregulation of genes involved in JH production and a downregulation of allatostatin receptor mRNA in the CA. Treatment with dsRNA also affected the expression of genes downstream of JH in target tissues including vitellogenin and Krüppel-homolog 1 as well as Broad-Complex , an early ecdysone response gene. Overall, results suggest that DpRXR and DpEcR are not required early in the reproductive cycle when events are JH-dependent, but do mediate critical ecdysteroid feedback to the CA late in the gonadotropic cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cadmium (Cd) is a known endocrine disruptor with the ability to affect the production of hormones involved in the regulation of reproductive processes. In this study human adrenocortical carcinoma cell line NCI-H295R was used as anin vitrobiological model to study the effect of cadmium (CdCl2) on steroidogenesis. The cell cultures were exposed to different concentrations of CdCl2(1.90, 3.90, 7.80, 15.60, 31.20 and 62.50 μM) and compared to control (medium without CdCl2). Cell viability was measured by the metabolic activity (MTT) assay for estimation of mitochondria structural integrity. Quantification of sexual steroid production directly from aliquots of the medium was performed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Following 48 h culture of the cells in the presence of CdCl2a concentration-dependent depletion in progesterone production was observed at the lower concentrations of CdCl2. The lowest amount of progesterone was significantly detected in groups with the higher doses (≥ 31.20 μM) of CdCl2, which elicited significant (P< 0.01) cytotoxic action, too. Cadmium decreased testosterone release in the whole applied range even at the lower concentration of CdCl2. The release of 17β-estradiol decreased as well, but the decline was less pronounced compared to decrease of progesterone and testosterone. The cytotoxic effect was significantly (P< 0.01) detected at all concentrations of CdCl2(1.90–62.50 μM) used in the study. However, the cell viability remained relatively high (>75%) up to 7.80 μM of CdCl2and significantly (P< 0.01) decreased at 15.60 μM and higher concentrations of CdCl2. These results suggest that cadmium has endocrine disruptive effects on sexual steroid synthesis even at very low concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It’s known that the members of the TP53 family are involved in the regulation of female reproduction. Studies in mice showed that the TP73 gene (member of this family) plays a role in the size of follicular pool, ovulation rate and maintenance of genomic stability. In the present study we analyzed data from 605 patients with ≤ 37 years attending their first intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The association between the TP73 polymorphism (rs4648551, A>G) and the following parameters related to ovarian reserve, like age, antral follicular count (AFC), anti-Mullerian hormone levels (AMH) and ovarian response prediction index (ORPI) was evaluated. Our results showed an association of the AA genotype with diminished ovarian reserve (AMH <1, AFC ≤9). Women presenting the AA genotype had a 2.0-fold increased risk for having AMH <1 and AFC ≤9 (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.23-3.31, P = 0.005). Patients presenting AA genotype had the lowest levels of AMH (P = 0.02), the lowest number of antral follicles (P = 0.01) and the lowest ORPI (P = 0.007). Analyzing the alleles, we can see an enrichment of the A allele in the group of diminished ovarian reserve (OR 1.4, 95%CI 1.02-1.83, P = 0.04). To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to analyze this polymorphism in humans for assessing the numbers of ovarian follicles and AMH levels and, therefore, the ovarian reserve. Our findings can contribute to the use of this polymorphism as a potential marker of diminished ovarian reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the plots of the Canadian science fiction thriller Orphan Black involves a scheme to create dozens of siblings by harvesting the eggs of one woman, fertilizing them with the sperm of a single man, and implanting them for gestation in dozens of apparently willing surrogates. 1 The casualness of the procedure speaks to how comfortable we have all become with reproduction by technology. Yet there are still aspects of this process that remain outside the normative boundaries of most of our worldviews. This article considers recent advances in assisted reproductive technology (ART) that can result in a viable, fertilized embryo even when the mother is herself either permanently unconscious from a severe injury or has actually lost all brain function and therefore meets the legal criteria for brain death. It reviews these advances and applies them to four scenarios, or vignettes, that represent different concerns about the prospective mother's intent to reproduce before losing her ability to give consent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly, the law has been paying attention to the future child and the prevention of preconceptual harms. Regulation on procreation often appeals to the future child’s interests in order to justify the prevention of the child’s existence. However, besides bioethical critique, there is also a legal-theoretical problem that has been neglected so far. This article argues that the future child whose existence is prevented by an appeal to its own interests does not fit in the “regular” concept of law’s subject: the legal person. This creates two representation problems: First, the law lacks the proper vocabulary to address and represent this non-existent entity. Second, the appeal to its own interests as a justification of the prevention of the child’s existence creates a paradox, as the future child is treated as a subject and a non-subject at the same time. These two representation problems complicate the way law can “deal with” this singular entity. Since the vocabulary of the legal person is not equipped to articulate the future child, this article argues that further research is needed to understand what the future child is and how it functions in law.

Pituitary hormones have a large number of functions such as the regulation of stress response, electrolytic balance and reproduction. These include prolactin, growth hormone, oxytocin, vasopressin and ACTH, among others. Their synthesis and function depends on signals, constituted by the binding of the same hormones to specific receptors and induce or inhibit their synthesis or secretion. However, this is not the only regulatory mechanism of the pituitary hormone pathway. It has been observed that the neuroendocrine axes also interact with the immune system. This multi-directional communication between these systems has currently been accepted: pituitary hormones can regulate the functions of the immune system, and molecules secreted by the immune system modulate pituitary hormone function. This is the case of cytokines, which are secreted by different immunological cells and regulate their function. These molecules play a key role in the regulation by direct or indirect communication between the immunological and neuroendocrine systems and their production is influenced by the direct action of pituitary hormones and neurohormones on immune system cells. The action of some of the main pituitary hormones on the immunological system is summarized in this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important functions of the neuroendocrine system is that of regulating reproduction, particularly the inhibition of prolactin secretion in the hypophysis by dopamine (DA) synthesized in the arcuate nucleus. Apart from DA, noradrenaline (NA) also has a role in controlling prolactin secretion. While the role of DA in this regulation is known, that of NA remains incompletely understood. Previous studies have suggested that in conditions of functional insufficiency of the dopaminergic system, NA suppresses compensatory DA synthesis in the dopamine-producing neurons of the arcuate nucleus. The aim of the present work was to clarify the role of NA in the control of dopamine-producing neurons in the arcuate nucleus. This was addressed using two pharmacological models: 1) exclusion of dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons and/or their axons in the arcuate nucleus, and b) exclusion of dopaminergic neurons only, to allow the role of the noradrenergic component to the catecholaminergic regulation of prolactin secretion to be assessed. In conditions of functional insufficiency of dopaminergic neurons, retention of the noradrenergic innervation of the arcuate nucleus was found to lead to decreased expression of the first enzyme in DA synthesis - tyrosine hydroxylase - and exacerbation of DA deficiency. This is evidence for noradrenergic inhibitory control of the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase in arcuate nucleus neurons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Insulin has long been recognized as a key regulator of energy homeostasis via its actions at the level of the brain, but in addition, plays a role in regulating neural control of reproduction. In this review, we consider and compare evidence from animal models demonstrating a role for insulin for physiological control of reproduction by effects on GnRH/LH secretion. We also review the role that insulin plays in prenatal programming of adult reproduction, and consider specific candidate neurons in the adult hypothalamus by which insulin may act to regulate reproductive function. Finally, we review clinical evidence of the role that insulin may play in adult human fertility and reproductive disorders. Overall, while insulin appears to have a significant impact on reproductive neuroendocrine function, there are many unanswered questions regarding its precise sites and mechanisms of action, and their impact on developing and adult reproductive neuroendocrine function. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents information on several research papers on topics such as snake detector, timing effect on reproductive success, and eye movements. Topics discussed include perceived contrast is incardinate with respect to spatial frequency, evolutionary relevance of snakes and other threatening stimuli, and saccadic eye movements that produce concomitant image motion.

Reproductive changes such as impaired fertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes have been related to female asthma. We recently found that time to pregnancy is prolonged in asthmatic females especially in women with moderate to severe asthma and in those above 30 years of age. Despite their reproductive difficulties the asthmatics ultimately conceived just as many biological children as healthy throughout their reproductive lives. This knowledge therefore raises questions about how asthma affects fertility pathophysiologically. The purpose of this review is to describe the existing knowledge in this field and suggest hypotheses of causal relationships, which may form the basis for future studies in this field. The aim is, in particular, in the literature to examine whether there is any evidence to suggest that the systemic inflammation that characterizes asthma, can affect fertility. The issue is potentially clinically important for asthmatic, infertile individuals and society because treatment of the general systemic inflammation associated with the asthmatic disease combinedwith hormone stimulation might be the optimal target for an effective infertility therapy, possibly decreasing the need for in vitro fertilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Over than fifty years starfishes have been widely used as model for studying the mechanisms of cell cycle regulation, oocyte maturation and fertilization. Besides, significant work has been done to investigate the role of nervous system in the control of reproduction and spawning in these animals. Nowadays, sea stars represent one of the most thoroughly studied model for hormonal regulation of reproduction among invertebrates. However, while the general picture of neuroendocrine control of asteroid reproduction can be drawn easily, our knowledge concerning the details of this process still has some gaps. Filling these gaps is essential for studying the diversity of hormonal mechanisms involved in regulation of animal reproduction. The present paper aims to briefly summarize current data on hormonal regulation of reproduction in sea stars and to highlight existing gaps in our knowledge on the details of this process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract Certain states impose restrictions on assisted reproduction because they believe such acts to be morally wrong. However, people who live in a state with restrictive legislation always have the option of going abroad to evade that law. Turkey and several states in Australia have enacted extraterritorial laws to stop forms of reproductive travelling for law evasion. Within the EU, the European Convention of Human Rights would normally remove the need for extraterritorial laws. However, because of the wide margin of appreciation allowed by the European Court of Human Rights, legal diversity on these matters persists. In the case of S.H. and Others v. Austria, moral justification, consistency and proportionality were introduced by the First Section to rule on Member States' legislation on medically assisted reproduction. The First Section mostly ruled on the effectiveness of the law, while the focus should be on the validity of the normative aim. The Grand Chamber reversed this judgement based on the margin of appreciation doctrine, using it as a pragmatic substitute for a substantial decision. In general, the EU's interests of harmonization and unification are at odds with the right to national identity of individual states in areas of contested morality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the legal concept of best interest. Topics include the best interests of children in child-related or domestic disputes, the regulation of reproduction in the U.S., and eugenics. Information is provided on legal justification, legal ethics, and legal moralism. The author also discusses sex selection.

Social parasitism is widespread in many groups of social living hymenopteran species and has also evolved in the genus Bombus. Cuckoo bumblebees (subgenus Psithyrus) are obligate brood parasites in nests of other bumblebee species. After nest usurpation and the killing of the host queen, the parasite female has to control worker reproduction in order to accomplish and maintain reproductive dominance and to ensure her reproductive success. The aim of our study was to examine whether the generalist parasitic bumblebee Bombus bohemicus monopolizes and prevents worker reproduction by physical or chemical means and to identify possible odor compounds involved therein. We performed bioassays with callow workers of the host Bombus terrestris and have shown that B. bohemicus females are able to suppress host worker ovarian development, when these host workers are under the direct influence of the parasite female. Furthermore, by chemical analyses, we have demonstrated that the parasite females adjust to the odor profiles of their host queens in order to maintain the level of fertility signaling inside the host colony although the host queen is absent. We also found that host workers change their odor profile after nest usurpation by the parasite female and consequently, we suggest that the host and parasite are caught up in a chemical arms race. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The neurohormonal control of reproduction involves a hierarchical network of central and peripheral signals in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. Development and function of this neuroendocrine system is the result of a lifelong delicate balance between endogenous regulators and environmental cues, including nutritional and metabolic factors. Kisspeptins are the peptide products of KISS1, which operate via the G-protein-coupled receptor GPR54 (also known as Kiss1R). These peptides have emerged as essential upstream regulators of neurons secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), the major hypothalamic node for the stimulatory control of the HPG axis. They are potent elicitors of gonadotropin secretion in various species and physiological settings. Moreover, Kiss1 neurons in the hypothalamus participate in crucial features of reproductive maturation and function, such as brain-level sex differentiation, puberty onset and the neuroendocrine regulation of gonadotropin secretion and ovulation. Cotransmitters of Kiss1 neurons, such as neurokinin B, with roles in controlling the HPG axis have been identified by genetic, neuroanatomical and physiological studies. In addition, a putative role has been proposed for Kiss1 neurons in transmitting metabolic information to GnRH neurons, although the precise mechanisms are as yet unclear. In this Review, we present the major reproductive features of kisspeptins, especially their interplay with neurokinin B and potential roles in the metabolic control of puberty and fertility, and suggest new avenues for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the range of regulation that state government in the U.S. can impose on the in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure to regulate the IVF industry without violating a woman's constitutional rights. It describes benefits afforded to infertile women undergoing the procedure and reflects the potential health risks and complications involved for both mother and child. It presents English model of reproductive regulation and discusses its strengths and weaknesses.

The function of the mammalian follicle is regulated by circulating gonadotropins and a myriad of local paracrine regulations functioning within the ovary. Cyclic nucleotide signaling plays an essential role in mediating both these endocrine and paracrine regulations. Given their role in controlling cyclic nucleotide levels, cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are critical for ovarian function. PDEs modulate gonadotropin responses in the somatic compartment of the ovarian follicle. Specific PDEs are also essential for the oocyte entry and exit from the meiotic cell cycle. This review summarizes the function and regulation of PDEs in the somatic compartment and in the oocyte, and highlights the potential of PDEs as targets to improve assisted reproduction, as well as for fertility control. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: Sex is a long-standing evolutionary enigma. Although the majority of eukaryotes reproduce sexually at least sometimes [], the evolution of sex from an asexual ancestor has been difficult to explain because it requires sexually reproducing lineages to overcome the manifold costs of sex, including the destruction of favorable gene combinations created by selection []. Conditions for the evolution of sex are much broader if individuals can reproduce either sexually or asexually (i.e., facultative sex) and allocate disproportionately more resources to sex when their fitness is low (fitness-associated-sex or FAS []). Although facultatively sexual organisms have been shown to engage in more sex when stressed [], direct evidence for FAS is lacking. We provide evidence using 53 genotypes of the filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans in a reciprocal transplant experiment across three environments. Different genotypes achieved highest fitness in different environments and genotypes invested relatively more in sex in environments in which their fitness was lower, showing that allocation to sexual reproduction is a function of how well-adapted a genotype is to its environment. FAS in A. nidulans is unlikely to have evolved as a strategy to resist or avoid stress because asexual spores are more dispersive and equally resistant []. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The volcano mouse, Neotomodon alstoni, was studied in order to describe basic circadian behavior during free running and entrainment to parametric and non-parametric photoperiods. Responses to short and long days were also tested to ascertain any potential photoperiodic response. This species is endemic to the high grasslands of central Mexico. Its breeding peaks during summer, indicating a possible circannual regulation of reproduction. Our results indicate that locomotor activity in Neotomodon alstoni is typical of a nocturnal rodent when studied using running wheels, however, when activity was observed in freely moving recordings with no running wheel, locomotor activity shifts to a semidiurnal architecture when exposed to long day photoperiods. When gonadal activity was studied in males exposed to short and long days, significant differences were observed in testis size, nevertheless levels of testosterone and seminiferous tubuli indicated that day length does not inhibit sexual maturity in this species. The results indicated that N. alstoni may not be photoperiodic with regard to gonadal activity, however it does display photoperiodic differences with regard to behavior, body weight and testis size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considerable research has focused on understanding variation in reproductive skew in cooperative animal societies, but the pace of theoretical development has far outstripped empirical testing of the models. One major class of model suggests that dominant individuals can use the threat of eviction to deter subordinate reproduction (the ‘restraint’ model), but this idea remains untested. Here, we use long-term behavioural and genetic data to test the assumptions of the restraint model in banded mongooses (Mungos mungo), a species in which subordinates breed regularly and evictions are common. We found that dominant females suffer reproductive costs when subordinates breed, and respond to these costs by evicting breeding subordinates from the group en masse, in agreement with the assumptions of the model. We found no evidence, however, that subordinate females exercise reproductive restraint to avoid being evicted in the first place. This means that the pattern of reproduction is not the result of a reproductive ‘transaction’ to avert the threat of eviction. We present a simple game theoretical analysis that suggests that eviction threats may often be ineffective to induce pre-emptive restraint among multiple subordinates and predicts that threats of eviction (or departure) will be much more effective in dyadic relationships and linear hierarchies. Transactional models may be more applicable to these systems. Greater focus on testing the assumptions rather than predictions of skew models can lead to a better understanding of how animals control each other's reproduction, and the extent to which behaviour is shaped by overt acts versus hidden threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Identification of novel neurohormones that regulate the reproductive axis is essential for the progress of neuroendocrinology. The decapeptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is the primary factor responsible for the hypothalamic control of gonadotropin secretion. Gonadal sex steroids and inhibin modulate gonadotropin secretion via feedback from the gonads, but a neuropeptide that directly inhibits gonadotropin secretion was unknown in vertebrates until 2000 when a hypothalamic dodecapeptide serving this function was discovered in quail. Because of its action on cultured pituitary in quail, it was named gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH). GnIH acts on the pituitary and on GnRH neurons in the hypothalamus via a novel G protein-coupled receptor (GPR147). GPR74 may also be a possible candidate GnIH receptor. GnIH decreases gonadotropin synthesis and release, inhibiting gonadal development and maintenance. Melatonin stimulates the expression and release of GnIH via melatonin receptors expressed by GnIH neurons. GnIH actions and interactions with GnRH seem common not only to several avian species, but also to mammals. Thus, GnIH is considered to have an evolutionarily conserved role in controlling vertebrate reproduction, and GnIH homologs have also been identified in the hypothalamus of mammals. As in birds, mammalian GnIH homologs act to inhibit gonadotropin release in several species. More recent evidence in birds and mammals indicates that GnIH may operate at the level of the gonads as an autocrine/paracrine regulator of steroidogenesis and gametogenesis. Importantly, GnIH in birds and mammals appears to act at all levels of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, and possibly over different time-frames (minutes–days). Thus, GnIH and its homologs appear to act as key neurohormones controlling vertebrate reproduction. The discovery of GnIH has enabled us to understand and manipulate vertebrate reproduction from an entirely new perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Reproductive function depends on the stimulatory action of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), secreted by the brain. Original work in birds identified and isolated a peptide that inhibits gonadotropin release, named gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH). There is no evidence for a similar factor operant in mammals. This mammalian orthologue of GnIH has been named RFamide-related peptide (RFRP), and negatively regulates GnRH function and gonadotropin secretion. In particular, mammalian GnIH inhibits the function of GnRH cells and acts at the level of gonadotropes. It appears to play a major role in seasonal regulation of reproduction and also to be involved in regulation of stress and food intake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In mammals, uterine and placental prostaglandin F2α is involved in the regulation of reproduction-related processes such as embryonic development, initiation of parturition, and resumption of ovarian activity. Prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) is rapidly metabolized to its plasma metabolite PGFM (13,14-dihydro-15-keto-PGF2α), which has also been detected in urine. Therefore, the current study aimed to develop and validate an efficient, quick, and inexpensive enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for PGFM estimation in urine of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) for pregnancy monitoring and for differentiation between pregnancy and pseudo-pregnancy. Urine samples collected from captive Iberian lynx (11 pregnant and 4 pseudo-pregnant cycles) were subjected directly to a PGFM EIA. The assay was validated for parallelism, precision, and stability of urinary PGFM. In addition, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) immunograms and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LCMS) were performed to identify PGFM within urine samples. Urinary PGFM levels before mating and after parturition were about 1.5 ng/mL. After Day 20 postmating, both pregnant and pseudo-pregnant females showed slight increase of hormone levels; in pseudo-pregnant females, this elevation did not exceed 7 ng/mL. A significant increase in pregnant females was observed after Day 45 postmating; urinary PGFM increased from 10 ng/mL at Day 45 toward a peak of 46.0±19.3 ng/mL around parturition. First results show that PGFM is detectable in feces as well and follows similar courses as shown for urine. In conclusion, the presented and validated PGFM assay is an easy and reliable method for noninvasive pregnancy diagnosis in the Iberian lynx (and probably other felids) if applied approximately 20 d prior parturition in pure urine or fecal extracts. High PGFM levels in urine or fecal samples may allow a pregnancy diagnosis without knowledge of mating time, making the PGFM test applicable to free-ranging animals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF) families are composed of liver-enriched transcription factors and upstream regulators of many liver-specific genes. HNF are involved in liver-specific gene expression, metabolism, development, cell growth and many cellular functions in the body. HNF genes can be activated or influenced by several hormones and insulin-like growth factors (IGF), and different combinations of the four HNF factors form a network in controlling the expression of liver-specific or liver-enriched genes. The functions of these factors and their interactions within the gonads of bony fishes, however, are not well understood, and the related literature is scant. Recently, several members of the HNF families have been detected in teleost gonads together with their downstream genes (IGF-I and IGF-II), suggesting that these HNF could be upregulated in vitro by steroid hormones. Thus, the hormone–HNF–IGF–gonad interaction may be an alternative axis in the reproductive mechanism that acts in concert with the conventional hypothalamus–pituitary–gonad pathway. This may help the early development and maturation of the gonad or gamete, sexual maturity or reversion and spawning-regulating mechanisms among fishes to be understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonality is an important adaptive trait in temperate fish species as it entrains or regulates most physiological events such as reproductive cycle, growth profile, locomotor activity and key life-stage transitions. Photoperiod is undoubtedly one of the most predictable environmental signals that can be used by most living organisms including fishes in temperate areas. This said, however, understanding of how such a simple signal can dictate the time of gonadal recruitment and spawning, for example, is a complex task. Over the past few decades, many scientists attempted to unravel the roots of photoperiodic signalling in teleosts by investigating the role of melatonin in reproduction, but without great success. In fact, the hormone melatonin is recognized as the biological time-keeping hormone in fishes mainly due to the fact that it reflects the seasonal variation in daylength across the whole animal kingdom rather than the existence of direct evidences of its role in the entrainment of reproduction in fishes. Recently, however, some new studies clearly suggested that melatonin interacts with the reproductive cascade at a number of key steps such as through the dopaminergic system in the brain or the synchronization of the final oocyte maturation in the gonad. Interestingly, in the past few years, additional pathways have become apparent in the search for a fish photoneuroendocrine system including the clock-gene network and kisspeptin signalling and although research on these topics are still in their infancy, it is moving at great pace. This review thus aims to bring together the current knowledge on the photic control of reproduction mainly focusing on seasonal temperate fish species and shape the current working hypotheses supported by recent findings obtained in teleosts or based on knowledge gathered in mammalian and avian species. Four of the main potential regulatory systems (light perception, melatonin, clock genes and kisspeptin) in fish reproduction are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Observed phenotype often fails to correspond with genotype. Although it is well established that uncontrolled genetic modifier effects and environmental variability can affect phenotype, stochastic variation in gene expression can also contribute to phenotypic differences. Here we examine recent work that has provided insights into how fundamental physical properties of living cells, and the probabilistic nature of the chemical reactions that underlie gene expression, introduce noise. We focus on instances in which a stochastic decision initiates an event in the development of a multicellular organism and how that decision can be subsequently fixed. We present an example indicating that a similar interplay between an initial stochastic decision and subsequent fixation may underlie the regulation of reproduction in social insects. We argue, therefore, that stochasticity affects biological processes from the single-gene scale through to the complex organization of an ant colony, and represents a largely neglected component of phenotypic variation and evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The population dynamics of a consumer population with an internal structure is investigated. The population is divided into juvenile and adult individuals that consume different resources and do not interfere with each other. Over a broad range of external conditions (varying mortality and different resource levels), alternative stable states exist. These population states correspond to domination of juveniles and domination of adults, respectively. When mortality is varied, hysteresis between the alternative states only occurs if juveniles have more resources than adults. In the opposite case the juvenile-dominated state is stable for all values of mortality, but the adult-dominated state is not. When the population is modelled with more than one juvenile stage, the adult-dominated state becomes a periodic orbit due to a delay in the regulatory mechanism of the population dynamics. It is shown numerically that the stage-structured model converges to a model with continuous size structure for very large numbers of successive juvenile stages. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The elemental microdistributions of peripheral and central parts of the lichen Flavoparmelia caperata exposed to industrial pollution were analysed, in order to better understand the elements distribution patterns in relation to the lichen constitution, thereby increasing our knowledge on uptake and release mechanisms. Nuclear microscopy techniques were used to visualize elemental distributions in sample transepts and associate their concentrations to sample morphology. The distribution data of the elements studied suggests there is biological regulation of internal concentrations. Considering thallus parts, element-specific internal translocation should be taken into account as one more factor affecting lichen “memory length”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: During metestrus of the estrous cycle, a number of neutrophils infiltrate into the vaginal vault, presumably due to a neutrophil-specific chemokine, MIP-2, in mice. The physiological role of the infiltrating neutrophils, however, remains largely obscure. In this study we examined the effects of neutrophil depletion on the estrous cycle and steroid hormone levels. When mice were treated with an anti-Gr-1 mAb, they became neutropenic, as assessed as to the number of neutrophils in the peripheral blood. The estrous cycle of such mice was specifically blocked at diestrus irrespective of the phase at which the anti-Gr-1 mAb was administered. The blockade was reversible, because restoration of neutrophils to a normal level caused a restart of the cycle. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that neutrophils were present mainly on the luminal surface and in the lumen at metestrus and to a lesser extent at diestrus but scarcely in the uterine cervix at any phase, and that the anti-Gr-1 mAb depleted neutrophils but not eosinophils in the vagina. The treatment with the anti-Gr-1 mAb significantly affected the serum 17β-estradiol and progesterone levels at diestrus after the estrous cycle was blocked. Together, these results suggest that neutrophil infiltration into the vagina is critical in maintaining the estrous cycle through control of steroid hormone levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Four isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi were able to produce selfed oospores when cultured in vitro on modified Ribeiro’s minimal medium. Phosphite inhibited the production of selfed oospores at 100 μg phosphite/ml, lower concentrations had no effect. Selfed oospores were considered dormant as 16–47% of selfed oospores were found viable using viability staining techniques such as thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide and 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole·2HCl yet they did not germinate on a range of media. Phosphite up to 100 μg/ml did not change the proportion of viable selfed oospores. This study shows that phosphite does not affect the production of selfed oospores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rock crab, Grapsus adscensionis (Osbeck, 1765), was studied on Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. By day crabs were inactive above water level at high tide, but during low tide fed on algal films exposed on the low shore. By night they were inactive at all tidal states. Both sexes reached a maximum carapace width of 74 mm, but were potentially capable of further moulting. Sexual maturity was reached at ∼38 mm carapace width in males, and ∼43 mm carapace width in females. In females one batch of eggs was produced in most intermoults. The ovaries had matured by the time that the eggs had completed incubation. The females moulted shortly after the hatching of the eggs, and re-laid early in the next intermoult. Consequently 78% of mature females were ovigerous. It is estimated that an egg batch is laid every 24 days. Reproductive investment (dry weight) per egg batch averaged 5.5%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Male animals of many species deploy conditional reproductive strategies that contain distinct alternative phenotypes. Such facultatively expressed male tactics are assumed to be due to a single developmental threshold mechanism switching between the expression of two alternative phenotypes. However, we discovered a clade of dung beetles that commonly expresses two threshold mechanisms, resulting in three alternative phenotypes (male trimorphism). Once recognized, we found trimorphism in other beetle families that involves different types of male weapons. Evidence that insects assumed to be dimorphic can express three facultative male forms suggests that we need to adjust how we think about animal mating systems and the evolution of conditional strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The objectives of this study were to evaluate factors associated with resumption of postpartum estrous cycles and embryonic survival in lactating dairy cows. Holstein cows, 6396 from four dairy farms were evaluated to determine the relationships among parity, body condition score (BCS) at calving and at AI, season of year when cows calved, and milk yield on resumption of postpartum estrous cycles by 65 days postpartum, and all the previous variables, estrual or anestrus and AI protocol on conception rates and embryonic survival at the first postpartum insemination. Cows had their estrous cycle pre-synchronized with two PGF2α injections given 14 days apart and were inseminated between 69 and 82 days postpartum following either an estrous or ovulation synchronization protocol initiated 12–14 days after the presynchronization. Blood was sampled and analyzed for progesterone twice, 12–14 days apart, to determine whether cows had initiated onset of estrous cycles after calving. Cows were scored for body condition in the week after calving, and again at AI, between 69 and 82 days postpartum. Pregnancy was diagnosed at 30±3 and 58±3 days after AI. Farm influenced all reproductive outcomes evaluated. More (P <0.0001) multiparous than primiparous cows had initiated estrous cycles. Onset of estrous cycles was also influenced (P <0.01) by BCS at calving and at AI, BCS change, season, and milk yield. More (P <0.001) cows that had initiated estrous cycles than anestrous cows were pregnant at 30 and 58 days after AI, but anestrus did not affect pregnancy loss. Conception rates were also influenced (P <0.01) by parity, BCS at calving and AI, BCS change, and season; however, milk yield and insemination protocol were not associated with conception rates at 30 and 58 days after AI. Factors that reduced conception rate on day 30 after AI also increased pregnancy loss between 30 and 58 days of gestation. Improving BCS at calving and AI, minimizing losses of BCS after calving, and hastening onset of estrous cycles early postpartum are all expected to increase conception because of enhanced embryonic survival. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: Cheaters are a threat to every society and therefore societies have established rules to punish these individuals in order to stabilize their social system . Recent models and observations suggest that enforcement of reproductive altruism (policing) in hymenopteran insect societies is a major force in maintaining high levels of cooperation . In order to be able to enforce altruism, reproductive cheaters need to be reliably identified. Strong correlational evidence indicates that cuticular hydrocarbons are the means of identifying cheaters , but direct proof is still missing. In the ant Aphaenogaster cockerelli, we mimicked reproductive cheaters by applying a synthetic compound typical of fertile individuals on nonreproductive workers. This treatment induced nestmate aggression in colonies where a queen was present. As expected, it failed to do so in colonies without a queen where workers had begun to reproduce. This provides the first direct evidence that cuticular hydrocarbons are the informational basis of policing behaviors, serving a major function in the regulation of reproduction in social insects. We suggest that even though cheaters would gain from suppressing these profiles, they are prevented from doing so through the mechanisms of hydrocarbon biosynthesis and its relation to reproductive physiology. Cheaters are identified through information that is inherently reliable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]