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Cortinarius subgenus Myxacium has been used since the times of Elias Fries to denote a large group of species characterized by a viscid universal veil. In molecular studies during the past decades, the subgenus was shown to be polyphyletic. In this study, we emend the circumscription of the subgenus, taking into consideration recent research involving taxa from both hemispheres. Known sections of myxacioid taxa are discussed, identifying those that remain in the subgenus and those that do not. A new Myxacium species Cortinarius vitreopallidus from New Zealand is described, and the genus Quadrispora is recombined as a section in Cortinarius subg. Myxacium.

Cortinarius is a speciose genus of mycorrhizal fungi that contains many cryptic and difficult to delineate taxa. Correct identification can be confounded for species where no genetic information is...

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) are critical to the establishment of many plant species and an important consideration in ecological restoration of southern beech (Nothofagaceae) forest. However, infor...

The circumscription of the lichenized ascomycete genusIcmadophilaTrevis. in the familyIcmadophilaceaeTriebel was investigated. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and large subunit of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nuLSU) were generated for the fiveIcmadophilaspecies and additional members ofIcmadophilaceaefrom the generaDibaeis,Endocena,Knightiella,Siphula,SiphulellaandThamnolia. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that threeIcmadophilaspecies are closely related: the type,I. ericetorum(L.) Zahlbr., which is widespread in Eurasia and North America,I. aversa(Nyl.) Rambold & Hertel from Central and South America, andI. japonica(Zahlbr.) Rambold & Hertel, which is restricted to Far East Russia and Japan. The genusKnightiellaMüll. Arg. is reinstated to accommodateI. splachnirima(Hook.f. & Taylor) D. J. Galloway emend. L. Ludw., which occurs in New Zealand and Australia. Two further species ofKnightiella,K. eucalypti(Kantvilas) Kantvilas andK. queenslandicaKantvilas, are found to be unrelated toK. splachnirima, and are accommodated in two newly described genera,KnightiellastrumandSiphulopsisrespectively.KnightiellastrumL. Ludw. & Kantvilas is characterized by a squamulose, erhizinate, whitish to pale grey thallus with a green, coccoid photobiont and by containing thamnolic acid.SiphulopsisKantvilas & A. R. Nilsen is similarly characterized by an erhizinate, whitish to pale grey thallus, with a green, coccoid photobiont and containing thamnolic acid, but is instead fruticose. This study reveals considerable diversity within AustralasianIcmadophilaceae; ongoing work in the Southern Hemisphere and tropical regions may reveal additional species in this family and clarify the relationships of these newly described genera.

is a species-rich ectomycorrhizal genus containing taxa that exhibit agaricoid or sequestrate basidiome morphologies. In New Zealand, one of the most recognizable and common Cortinarius species is the purple sequestrate fungus, C. porphyroideus. We used genome skimming of the almost 100-y-old type specimen from C. porphyroideus to obtain the nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS barcode) and partial nuc rDNA 28S (28S) sequences. The phylogenetic position of C. porphyroideus was established, and we found that it represents a rarely collected species. Purple sequestrate Cortinarius comprise multiple cryptic species in several lineages. We describe four new species of Cortinarius with strong morphological similarity to C. porphyroideus: Cortinarius diaphorus, C. minorisporus, C. purpureocapitatus, and C. violaceocystidiatus. Based on molecular evidence, Thaxterogaster viola is recognized as Cortinarius violaceovolvatus var. viola. These species are associated with Nothofagus (southern beech) and have very similar morphology to C. porphyroideus but are all phylogenetically distinct based on molecular data.

Wild fish aggregate at aquaculture net-pens, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. This study examined how salmon farms attract coastal Atlantic cod Gadus morhua from their inshore spawning grounds. Acoustic receivers were deployed at 5 known cod spawning grounds and 6 salmon Salmo salar farms located at varying distances from these grounds in a mid-Norway study site. Cod were caught at each spawning ground annually from 2017-2019, fitted with acoustic transmitters and released (n = 535). A total of 289 tagged cod (54%) were detected at the salmon farms, with more cod detected at farms closest to the focal spawning grounds and at operational farms. The latter result is likely linked to the availability of feeding opportunities at farm locations. Those cod that were detected by the receivers spent less time at farms farther from their release locations. For the farm-associated cod, 70% were detected for 1 mo close to the farms, with 1 individual staying 720 d underneath the farm. A total of 135 cod visited 2 or more farms, with farms in proximity more connected in terms of inter-farm movement. Some of the cod utilizing these local spawning grounds likely have considerable dietary input from salmon feed.

Cortinarius is a taxonomically diverse genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi. It has a global distribution and is the dominant genus found under Nothofagus in New Zealand. Here we describe Cortinarius atropileatus, associated with Nothofagus. The new species is morphologically very similar to C. dulciolens but may be distinguished by the vivid mauve-violet lamellae when young, spores with reduced verrucose ornamentation and a less pronounced plage, and the presence of abundant clamp connections in the epicuticular hyphae. A molecular phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and RNA polymerase second largest subunit (RPB2) shows that C. atropileatus is in C. sect. Dulciolentes ined. and is sister to an undescribed sequestrate species.

Background High load (HL: > 85% of one repetition maximum (1RM)) squats with maximal intended velocity contractions (MIVC) combined with football sessions can be considered a relevant and time-efficient practice for maintaining and improving high velocity movements in football. Flywheel (FW) resistance exercise (RE) have recently emerged with promising results on physical parameters associated with football performance. Methods In this randomized controlled trial over 6 weeks, 38 recreationally active male football players randomly performed RE with MIVCs two times per week as either 1) FW squats (n = 13) or 2) barbell free weight (BFW) HL squats (n = 13), where a third group served as controls (n = 12). All three groups conducted 2–3 football sessions and one friendly match a week during the intervention period. Pre- to post changes in 10-m sprint, countermovement jump (CMJ) and 1RM partial squat were assessed with univariate analyses of variance. Results The FW and BFW group equally improved their 10-m sprint time (2 and 2%, respectively, within group: both p p p p p Conclusion Squats carried out with FWs or BFWs where both are performed with MIVCs and combined with football sessions, were equally effective in improving sprint time and jump height in football players. The BFW group experienced a more than two-fold larger increase in maximal partial squat strength than the FW group in maximal partial squat strength. This presents FW RE as an alternative to BFW HL RE for improving high velocity movements in football. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04113031 (retrospectively registered, date: 02.10.2019).

is a species-rich ectomycorrhizal genus containing taxa that exhibit agaricoid or sequestrate basidiome morphologies. In New Zealand, one of the most recognizable and common

Background This study reports on a two-step service innovation project commissioned by the City Council of Oslo, coined as the Trust Model (TM). The aim was to develop a trust-based management model in municipal home care as an alternative to the purchaser-provider split (PPS), which has been the prevalent model in Norwegian and most European health services since the introduction of New Public Management in the 1990s. The TM was developed through a comprehensive participatory process.Methods The objectives were to a) identify important mechanisms facilitating or preventing the development and implementation of the trust model, and b) identify participants perceived outcomes. A realist informed process evaluation using mixed methods was performed in two iterations. The first (autumn 2016) included three districts, three teams and 80 patients. The second (2017) included four districts, eight teams and 160 patients.Results The TM was developed across the four districts. Team members, team leaders and managers found the TM promising, and no one wanted to return to the PPS. Patient satisfaction improved significantly during the first iteration. The TM iterations were complex, involving a series of agents interacting on different levels; interactions which in turn influenced the processes and ongoing interactions. The evaluation displayed a variety of interpretations of the TM and of trust as an organizational value. A series of needs for improvements were identified, including (1) develop a clear description of the model and its managerial principles, (2) develop a culture for trust-based management on all levels, (3) build team leaders’ competence, especially in trust-based management and coaching of team-members (4), clarify roles and responsibilities among team-members, (5) develop common procedures for allocation and distribution of services, and (6) build team-members communication competence in active listening and shared decision-making.Conclusions/implications Complex, values-based organizational innovation and change (like TM) challenge existing institutional logics (like NPM) and an organization’s ability to cope with institutional hybridization. The complexity of organizational innovation in home care and of researching this topic is understudied. The importance of recognizing the complexity of trust-building and the inherent slowness of radical service innovation should be further explored.

Adventitious roots in canopy soils associated with silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii Hook.f. (Nothofagaceae)) form ectomycorrhizal associations. We investigated the extent to which canopy ectomycorrhizal communities contribute to overall diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with silver beech. Hyphal ingrowth bags were buried for 12 months in canopy and terrestrial soils of five trees at one site. We used amplicon sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 region (ITS2) to assess diversity of both ectomycorrhizal and non-ectomycorrhizal OTUs in hyphal ingrowth bags. There was a significant difference in ectomycorrhizal fungal community diversity between the terrestrial and canopy hyphal ingrowth bag communities. Ectomycorrhizal community composition of the terrestrial and canopy environments was also significantly different. Some ectomycorrhizal taxa were significantly differentially represented in either the terrestrial or canopy environment. The hyphal ingrowth bags also accumulated non-ectomycorrhizal species. The non-ectomycorrhizal fungi also had significantly different diversity and community composition between the canopy and terrestrial environments. Like the ectomycorrhizal community, some non-ectomycorrhizal taxa were significantly differentially represented in either the terrestrial or canopy environment. The canopy soil microhabitat provides a novel environment for growth of ectomycorrhizal adventitious roots and enables the spatial partitioning of ectomycorrhizal and non-ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity in the forest.

Word document with supplementary details on the methods, and supplementary tables and figures related to the main manuscript

Adventitious roots in canopy soils associated with silver beech (Lophozonia menziesii (Hook.f.) Heenan & Smissen (Nothofagaceae)) form ectomycorrhizal associations. We used amplicon sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer 2 region to compare diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungal species in canopy and terrestrial sites. The study data are archived as an NCBI BioProject (accession PRJNA421209), with the raw DNA sequence reads available from the NCBI Sequence Read Archive SRA637723 Community composition of canopy ectomycorrhizal fungi was significantly different to the terrestrial community composition, with several abundant ectomycorrhizal species significantly more represented in the terrestrial soil than the canopy soil. Additionally, we found evidence that an introduced ectomycorrhizal species was present in these native forest soils. We identified OTUs in two ways: (i) by manually curated BLAST searching of the NCBI nr database, and (ii) by comparison with Species Hypotheses on UNITE v.7.2. We desired to make species identifications where we could be reasonably confident they were robust, but had to avoid making identifications when an incorrect name could have implications for biosecurity or our understanding of biodiversity and biogeography. We found some UNITE Species Hypotheses included sequences of more than one taxon, which we were able to separate and distinguish by phylogenetic analysis. Consequently we exercised caution in reporting names based on the Species Hypotheses. Using data from this case study, we will illustrate the achievements and challenges faced in identifying species of ectomycorrhizal fungi from DNA barcodes. Most DNA sequences of ectomycorrhizal fungi matched closely New Zealand voucher specimens stored in either the New Zealand Fungal Herbarium (PDD) or the Otago Regional Herbarium (OTA), which facilitated the validation of identifications. In the case of PDD specimens, collection and DNA data were linked via the Systematics Collections Data database (https://scd.landcareresearch.co.nz). We are working towards a similar database for OTA specimens, using the Specify 6 database platform.

Safety in green spaces was examined within residential areas with multi-family housing in Swedish towns. The focus was on a specific type of space in order to identify elements important for the feeling of safety in that realm. The method used was qualitative interviews with residents and housing company staff. Housing staff and residents emphasised good lighting and low vegetation as important elements for feeling safe. Another key element raised by residents was knowing and recognising people in the area and being able to place them in appropriate contexts. Low shrubs and lighting improved the view. Visibility had a close connection to viewing other people and distinguishing between desirable and undesirable people, a classification aided by knowledge about residents in the area. The three elements lighting, cut shrubs and knowledge about neighbours are all contextualised and given meaning here in a broader understanding of how safety is experienced.

Underwater friction stud welding (FRSW) without a shroud around the stud requires controlling welding parameters to achieve optimal joint strength. A hydraulic FRSW unit has been designed and fabricated to perform FRSW without a shroud via a remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV). An experimental study has been initiated to investigate the optimal FRSW parameter combinations and corresponding values leading to optimal ultimate tensile load capacity (UTLC) values in the welded joint. The engineering robust design (ERD) approach has been deployed to run the experiment. Each weld has been made with a S355 M12 stud on S355 structural steel plate. This paper discusses the experimental approach, results and conclusions reached in the parameter evaluation, estimation, and experimentation.

Isolation in cell culture of nodavirus from Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus suffering from viral encephalopathy and retinopathy (VER) is described. The cell line SSN-1 was inoculated with tissue material from affected juveniles (60 d after first feeding). Extensive cytopathic effects (CPE) developed approximately 5 d after inoculation, and were also observed after several passages in the same cell line. Cells from infected cultures showed reactivity with an antiserum against sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax nodavirus in an indirect immunofluorescence test. Analysis of infected cells with reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) resulted in a product of the predicted size using primers specific for striped jack Pseudocaranx dentex nodavirus. Electron micrographs of infected SSN-1 cells demonstrated virus particles that were approximately less than 30 nm. Challenge of Atlantic halibut larvae (4 d post-hatching) with supernatants from infected SSN-1 cells resulted in development of VER as verified by immunohistochemistry performed on larvae sampled from Day 9 after challenge. The present results show that a nodavirus from Atlantic halibut has been isolated using the SSN-1 cell line and that virus propagated in cell culture retained virulence.

We have searched for the delta F508 mutation in 77 Norwegian cystic fibrosis patients. Of the 154 chromosomes tested, 93 (60%) carried the delta F508 mutation. Haplotypes at the D7S23 locus (KM19 and XV2C markers) were determined. Of 81 chromosomes with the F508 mutation, the B haplotype was found on 77. We found three patients with the G551D and one patient with the R553X mutation in exon 11 of the CFTR locus.

A method of correlation analysis within a spatially moving window was applied to two sets of epidemiological/geochemical data in Norway, (1) mortality/disability rates of multiple sclerosis (MS) versus atmospheric fallout of Mg and concentrations of Se in overbank sediment, and (2) incidence rates of malignant melanoma of the skin (MM) versus concentrations of Ca and K in overbank sediment. It appears that n = 17 observation sites within the moving window is a practical compromise between noise in the data at small values of n and a spatial resolution good enough to detect trends in the distribution patterns of the correlation coefficient. For MS versus Mg, MS versus Se and MM versus Ca the correlation coefficients are generally negative and depict systematic distribution patterns with anomalous clusters of sites with good correlation. For MS versus Se the correlation coefficients also form an additional cluster of positive coefficients. Tests with permutated data show that more than 70% of the negative correlation coefficients for MS versus Mg and for MM versus Ca are both significantly different from zero at p

The witch, Glyptocephalus cynoglossus (L.), is one of the commonest flatfish caught in the prawn trawl fisheries along the Norwegian coast, but despite commercial interest abroad, few are landed. There is a marked lack of published details of the population biology of witch in Norwegian waters. Accordingly, witch were sampled in November 1986 and February 1987 with a demersal prawn trawl at two localities (Aglapsvik and Hekkingen) from Malangen, northern Norway. Analyses revealed a 1:1 sex ratio up to approximately 9 years of age. There was a preponderance of females among older fish. Annual rates of instantaneous total mortality ( Z ) varied from 0.24 to 0.76, depending on sex, locality and age. Growth rates (total length) of males and females were not found to be significantly different at Aglapsvik, while females had significantly greater rates of growth at Hekkingen. Von Bertalanffy growth function (VBGF) parameters for L ∞ and K varied from 39.3 to 46.9, and 0.15 to 0.23 respectively. Weight-length relationships were calculated and compared for male and female fish at the two localities. The data are compared and discussed with regard to knowledge of the biology of witch from other areas, especially Canada.

A mouse model for L. aethiopica infection is described. BALB/c mice were unable to clear an infection with 1 x 10(7) promastigotes injected into the hind footpad. However, there was no ulceration of the lesion and no development of overt clinical symptoms after 203 days of infection. Spread of viable organisms was evident in the draining lymph node but not in the spleen or liver. The control of the infection was associated with the development of classical delayed hypersensitivity responses to phenolized promastigotes and appeared as a localized granulomtaous infiltration. The infiltration had features of classical tuberculoid granulomas, but superimposed on it was a strong eosinophilic infiltration. The relevance of such cells though unclear is discussed.

In a prospective, controlled study, 186 prosthetic rubber feet of different designs were fitted to amputees with trans-tibial prostheses. There were 158 amputees available for follow-up. The amputee compliance was good and 89% were satisfied with their device. After 18 months of use one VI-Solid rubber foot from VVAF in Cambodia had failed, as compared to 11% failures with the same foot with a heel cavity, 3% with the EB-1 sandwich construction from POF in Vietnam, all performing significantly better than the 62% encountered with the vulcanized rubber foot from ICRC in Cambodia; the latter representing half of the feet failing in amputees walking bare-footed. Nearly all failures were located at the foot-sole or the keel. The failure rate was 20% for the HI-Cambodia foot after 12 months. After 24 months of use, still only one VI-Solid rubber foot had failed and this foot design was found superior to the others in regard of durability.

In a prospective controlled study, 172 polyurethane feet of different designs were fitted to 155 amputees with trans-tibial prostheses. These were followed in respect of their durability. The amputee compliance was in general good, and 87% were satisfied with their device. After 18 months the failure rate of 20% with the CIREC spring-blade foot was significantly better than the others, but poorer craftsmanship, higher complaint rate and lower compliance rate cast some doubt on the results. The results with the conventional SACH foot constructions with polyurethane as filling and covering materials were so poor after 18 months that their use cannot be recommended in tropical areas of the developing world.

Arusha, Tanzania.To determine tribal differences in knowledge and practices that might influence tuberculosis control.Twenty-seven villages were selected randomly out of 242 villages in four districts. In each village, a general and a livestock keeping group were selected at random. The households were home-visited and 426 family members were interviewed.On average, 40% of respondents practised habits that might expose them to both bovine and human tuberculosis. The Barabaig tribe had a significantly higher number of respondents (50%, chi2(2) = 5.1, P = 0.024) who did not boil milk. Eating uncooked meat or meat products was practised by 17.9% of all respondents. The habit was practised more by Iraqw (21.1%, chi2(2) = 6.9, P = 0.008) and Barabaig (31.6%, chi2(2) = 5.6, P = 0.016) than other tribes. About 75% of the respondents had a poor knowledge of tuberculosis.All tribes had habits and beliefs that might expose them to both bovine and human tuberculosis. The Iraqw and Barabaig tribes practised such habits more than other tribes. Knowledge of tuberculosis was limited in all tribes.

Arusha, Tanzania.To assess risk factors that might influence TB control in the general population and in livestock-keepers.Of 242 villages in four districts, 27 were selected randomly. In each village, a general and a livestock-keeping group were selected at random. The households were home-visited and 426 family members were interviewed.On average, three-quarters of households practised at least one risk activity for transmission of zoonotic tuberculosis, and respondents had poor knowledge about tuberculosis. In the livestock-keeping group, the risks of having a tuberculosis patient in the family were determined by poor ventilation (OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.1-6.5), confining livestock indoors with people (OR 2.3, 95%CI 1.1-5.0) and multiple determinants including poor ventilation (OR 13.5, 95% CI 2.5-71.7). Risk activities and the risks of having a tuberculosis patient in a family were significantly higher in the livestock-keeping group.The respondents had limited knowledge about tuberculosis, and the households had practices that posed potential risks for both human and bovine tuberculosis infection. Poor ventilation and confining livestock indoors were associated with tuberculosis spread in the households. These risks were observed more in the livestock-keeping group than in the general population group.

Ecological studies in Norway, using a method for spatially moving bivariate correlation analysis, show that south of 65 degrees N, there are significant positive correlations (p < 0.01) for rates of multiple sclerosis (MS) versus contents of radon (Rn) in indoor air, and significant negative correlations for MS rates versus fallout of magnesium (Mg) and amounts of precipitation. Based on these data, we propose the hypothesis that the content of Rn in inhaled air is a risk factor in MS. The release of harmful Rn levels to the air may be influenced by (1) the levels of exchangeable Mg in soil, which may affect the soil content of the Rn precursor radium (Ra), and (2) the amounts of precipitation through its effects on soil moisture, which is one of the factors controlling Rn emanation from the soil. This hypothesis agrees with several of the known epidemiological characteristics of MS.

The authors present a novel reduced-order observer with parameter adaptation for fast rotor flux estimation in induction motors. The observer is based on the current model of the induction motor represented in field-oriented coordinates. The theoretical principles of the developed algorithm are discussed. Some results of comparative investigations are presented which illustrate the steady-state and dynamic properties of the speed control system with observer and conventional current model. >

An attempt is made to quantify the efficiency improvements in electric vehicles which can be obtained with optimized flux control. A constant current ratio control strategy and a true optimum flux control strategy are evaluated and compared in stationary speed-torque working points and for standard driving cycles. This is done by the use of a computer-assisting analysis program for electric vehicles. Two different systems are analyzed; a smaller vehicle with a DC motor drive, and a larger vehicle with an induction motor drive. The constant current ratio control strategy is shown to be a simple alternative to true optimum control for DC motors. Driving cycle calculations show efficiency improvements of up to 5-6% with optimized flux control. >

A thorough method for evaluation and comparison of predictor models (models and observers) for rotor flux calculation is presented. A number of predictor models are investigated using the established procedure. The lowest overall sensitivity to parameter deviations and measurement errors is found in predictor models with voltage model and current model behaviour in the higher and lower frequency ranges, respectively. >

DC/AC high-power, high-density converter structures and topologies are evaluated. The direct DC-low frequency-AC structure with the dual active bridge (DAB) topology is selected together with insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switches at 100 kHz, 20 kVA. A novel control strategy for the DAB and series-loaded resonant converters is introduced. It gives the possibility of fixed-frequency, zero voltage switching in the entire converter output V-I-plane. Design equations are presented. A method for comparing topologies by mapping stress levels in the output V-I plane is demonstrated. Experimental results from a small-scale model are shown, with good correspondence to simulation waveforms. The converter will be driven by an IBM PC/MS Windows based control system, of which the core is a 32-b digital signal processor connected to a programmable gate array holding all switch control circuitry. >

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) persists in host macrophages (Mphis) because it has developed mechanisms to escape Mphi killing. In vitro studies have shown that MTB can induce and inhibit apoptosis by causing the expression of Bax and Bcl-2, respectively, suggesting that the infected cells' fate depends on pro- and antiapoptotic signals. In the present study, we investigated the role of Bcl-2 in MTB infection in situ. The aim was to study the pattern and distribution of Bcl-2 and Bax in cellular infiltrates of MTB-infected B6D2F1 hybrid mice and correlate the expression with the presence of MTB antigens (MAgs). Using formalin-fixed lung tissues (n = 45), our results showed a significant difference in the percentage of Mphis stained for Bcl-2 or MAgs and Bax (P0.0001). Bcl-2 expression was increased in a population of Mphis and corresponded in intensity, colocalization and percentage with that of MAgs on the same cells, while Bax expression was reduced. In lymphocyte aggregates, Bcl-2 and Bax did not show any differences. We conclude that overexpression of Bcl-2 in Mphis containing MTB may be associated with intracellular survival of the bacilli, thus demonstrating one way by which MTB can escape the host's cellular response and killing.

To study the location and mechanism of apoptosis within the human tuberculosis (TB) and leprosy lesions, parallel sections were analyzed for mycobacterial antigens (M.Ag), Fas ligand (FasL), Fas, CD68 and Mac387 by immunohistochemistry, and apoptotic cells by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl-transferase-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin nick end labelling method. Cutaneous leishmaniasis and foreign body granulomas were analyzed for comparison. The heavily infected macrophages in multibacillary TB and leprosy granulomas very strongly expressed FasL, indicating that a mycobacterial infection can induce an increased expression of FasL in a population of infected macrophages, which may protect them from the attack of Fas-expressing lymphocytes. However, macrophages with high levels of leishmania amastigotes did not selectively express FasL, suggesting that this phenomenon is specific for the mycobacteria. Interestingly, in the well-formed TB granulomas, 84% of the multinucleated giant cells strongly expressed FasL. The expression of Fas was weak (34%) or absent. A higher number (33%) of epithelioid cells expressed FasL than Fas (23%). Lymphocytes were scanty among the epithelioid cells. The frequency of apoptotic cells was higher in the epithelioid cells (0.25%) than the mononuclear cells in the mantle zone (0.14%). Thus, the epithelioid cells and the multinucleated giant cells by virtue of the increased expression of FasL may make these granulomas an immune privileged site for mycobacteria.