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ObjectiveChildren with developmental disabilities are associated with a high risk of poor school enrollment and educational attainment without timely and appropriate support. Epidemiological data on cerebral palsy and associated comorbidities required for policy intervention in global health are lacking. This paper set out to report the best available evidence on the global and regional prevalence of cerebral palsy (CP) and developmental intellectual disability and the associated “years lived with disability” (YLDs) among children under 5 years of age in 2019.MethodsWe analyzed the collaborative 2019 Rehabilitation Database of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study and World Health Organization for neurological and mental disorders available for 204 countries and territories. Point prevalence and YLDs with 95% uncertainty intervals (UI) are presented.ResultsGlobally, 8.1 million (7.1–9.2) or 1.2% of children under 5 years are estimated to have CP with 16.1 million (11.5–21.0) or 2.4% having intellectual disability. Over 98% resided in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). CP and intellectual disability accounted for 6.5% and 4.5% of the aggregate YLDs from all causes of adverse health outcomes respectively. African Region recorded the highest prevalence of CP (1.6%) while South-East Asia Region had the highest prevalence of intellectual disability. The top 10 countries accounted for 57.2% of the global prevalence of CP and 62.0% of the global prevalence of intellectual disability.ConclusionBased on this Database, CP and intellectual disability are highly prevalent and associated with substantial YLDs among children under 5 years worldwide. Universal early detection and support services are warranted, particularly in LMICs to optimize school readiness for these children toward inclusive education as envisioned by the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.

Substantial progress has been made in the fight against tuberculosis (TB); however, new approaches are needed to achieve the current target set by the World Health Organization (WHO) to reduce TB incidence to 90% of 2016 levels by 2035 (1). A key element of WHO’s End TB Strategy is the prioritization of preventive treatment (2). However, the preventable burden of childhood TB has not been quantified in prospective epidemiologic studies, and globally, only an estimated 7% of eligible children received isoniazid chemoprophylaxis in 2015 (1). Diagnosis of TB is more challenging in children than in adults (3). In low-resource settings, where TB burden is highest, diagnosis often relies on poorly validated clinical algorithms (4). As a result, adequate surveillance data are lacking, and published estimates of the global childhood TB burden vary widely (1,5–11). High-quality prospective data on the TB burden and case detection rate (CDR) in children are recognized priorities (8,11,12), and population-level data showing the preventable burden of childhood TB might reinforce the public health case for chemoprophylaxis in children. We designed the Kilifi Improving Diagnosis and Surveillance of Childhood TB (KIDS TB) Study to estimate the incidence, CDR, risk factors, and preventable burden of childhood TB in Kenya.

Global development goals increasingly rely on country-specific estimates for benchmarking a nation's progress. To meet this need, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2016 estimated global, regional, national, and, for selected locations, subnational cause-specific mortality beginning in the year 1980. Here we report an update to that study, making use of newly available data and improved methods. GBD 2017 provides a comprehensive assessment of cause-specific mortality for 282 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2017. The Lancet Publishing Group

Prospects of Biotechnology for Tea Improvement

Objective: We conducted a community survey to estimate the prevalence and describe the features, risk factors, and consequences of convulsive status epilepticus (CSE) among people with active convulsive epilepsy (ACE) identified in a multisite survey in Africa. Methods: We obtained clinical histories of CSE and neurologic examination data among 1,196 people with ACE identified from a population of 379,166 people in 3 sites: Agincourt, South Africa; Iganga-Mayuge, Uganda; and Kilifi, Kenya. We performed serologic assessment for the presence of antibodies to parasitic infections and HIV and determined adherence to antiepileptic drugs. Consequences of CSE were assessed using a questionnaire. Logistic regression was used to identify risk factors. Results: The adjusted prevalence of CSE in ACE among the general population across the 3 sites was 2.3 per 1,000, and differed with site (p < 0.0001). Over half (55%) of CSE occurred in febrile illnesses and focal seizures were present in 61%. Risk factors for CSE in ACE were neurologic impairments, acute encephalopathy, previous hospitalization, and presence of antibody titers to falciparum malaria and HIV; these differed across sites. Burns (15%), lack of education (49%), being single (77%), and unemployment (78%) were common in CSE; these differed across the 3 sites. Nine percent with and 10% without CSE died. Conclusions: CSE is common in people with ACE in Africa; most occurs with febrile illnesses, is untreated, and has focal features suggesting preventable risk factors. Effective prevention and the management of infections and neurologic impairments may reduce the burden of CSE in ACE.

Summary Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography measures cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFv) of basal intracranial vessels and is used clinically to detect stroke risk in children with sickle cell anaemia (SCA). Co‐inheritance in SCA of alpha‐thalassaemia and glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) polymorphisms is reported to associate with high CBFv and/or risk of stroke. The effect of a common functional polymorphism of haptoglobin (HP) is unknown. We investigated the effect of co‐inheritance of these polymorphisms on CBFv in 601 stroke‐free Tanzanian SCA patients aged

Clonal propagation by tissue culture of Afghan pine (Pinuseldarica Medw.) could be useful for improving Christmas tree production and afforestation of semiarid lands in North America. The objectives were (i) to develop organogenesis procedures for clonal propagation and (ii) to evaluate plantlet performance in the field. Shoot production from cotyledon explants was accomplished on solid Shenk and Hildebrandt medium amended with kinetin (11 μM) and benzyladenine (11 μM). Over 100 shoots per clone were obtained with this method. Spontaneous rooting was prevalent in some of the induced shoots. Shoots without root primordia were induced to form roots with naphthalene acetic acid (5 μM), indole butyric acid (10 μM), and benzyladenine (0.22 μM) in 1/2 strength Shenk and Hildebrandt medium. The rate of plantlet elongation in the field was similar to that of seedlings; however, survival of plantlets was lower than that of seedlings. The lower survival of plantlets was directly related to their smaller size at the time of planting. Organogenesis appears to be a very suitable method for mass micropropagation of this environmentally and economically useful tree.

Summary The physiological responses of osmotic adjustment and turgor maintenance may be critical for seedling survival under drought stress. The objectives were to determine: 1) if osmotic adjustment in shoots and changes in shoot tissue elasticity could be induced by cyclical gradual development of water deficits in seedlings, 2) if osmotic adjustment occurred in roots, and 3) to characterize important solutes contributing to osmotic adjustment. Cyclical drought stress treatments were applied to 5- to 6-month-old Pinus taeda L. seedlings from two half-sib families in a controlled-environment chamber by withholding irrigation until predawn xylem potentials reached desired levels. Predawn xylem water potentials did not fall below -0.6MPa in the irrigated, nonstressed seedlings, while in the stressed treatment, seedlings were irrigated to saturation only when predawn xylem potentials reached -1.5 to - 2.0 MPa. Pressure-volume curve analysis and solute analyses after five or more stress cycles confirmed significant osmotic adjustment. Osmotic adjustment through proline and monosaccharide (fructose, glucose) accumulation in fascicles was observed. Shoot tissue elasticity was reduced by drought stress. Osmotic adjustment was also demonstrated in both suberized and nonsuberized root portions of 16-month-old seedlings after only one drought cycle. No differences between the two families in cell wall elasticity capacities were observed. Pressure-volume curve analyses showed no significant differences in osmotic adjustment between the two families.

Based on casual qualitative observations, grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is less tolerant to salt than the noxious weed and potential biomass energy crop, johnsongrass [S. halepense (L.) Pers.]. The objective was to quantitatively compare whole plant growth and physiological responses to salt stress of these two sorghum species. Salt stress was induced by adding incremental levels of NaCl to a vermiculite medium until concentrations of 0.1 and 0.2 M were attained (...)

Grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], is reported to be less tolerant to salt than the noxious weed and potential biomass energy crop, johnsongrass [S. halepense (L.) Pers.]. The objective was to compare callus growth and osmotic responses to salinity of these two sorghum species. Callus was grown for 2 wk in a liquid Murashige and Skoog medium to which NaCl was added to final concentrations of 0.05, 0.1, and 0.15 M (...)

Cross-sectional surveys have been used widely for identifying children with disabilities, but they have several disadvantages. The surveys concentrate on identifying impairments and do not encourage the participation and ownership of the community. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) provides a cost-effective and efficient method that reflects the local perceptions of disability and involves local people. These factors are important for sustainability in resource-poor countries.To evaluate the application of PRA to identifying children with disabilities in a rural setting.PRA was used to identify children with disabilities in two rural sub-locations in Kilifi, Kenya. Data were collected through 12 focus group discussions and 12 social mapping activities. A purposive convenience sample of teachers, village leaders and women groups participated in the PRA. The perceptions of disability were established before identification of the children. The categories of identification were based on these local perceptions. The qualitative data were analyzed thematically and validation was performed through triangulation.Disability was perceived locally as the existence of impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions. Disabilities were associated with traditional beliefs including witchcraft, evil spirits and punishments from God. In some cases these categories were mutually exclusive and in others they were concurrent. Children who had lost their parents and were not being cared for by relatives (disadvantaged orphans) were also perceived as disabled children by teachers and local women, but not by community leaders.The results suggest that PRA is an efficient and cost-effective method of identifying children with disabilities according to local perceptions, and it may be useful in community-based rehabilitation as an alternative to surveys.

The genus Picea includes about 40 species of trees which are largely restricted to the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, many of them in China. The wood of Picea species is strong for its weight, moderately long fibered but slightly resinous, and of primary importance in the manufacture of pulp and paper and for sawnwood (timber). P. abies (Norway spruce), is, together with Pinus sylvestris, the most important European economic forest tree species, used for pulp and timber. It is native from the Pyrenees to Russia and from Lapland to the Balkans; in Russia it merges into P. obovata. It is extensively planted in N. Europe. In North America, the important economic species of Picea are P. glauca, (white spruce), which grows across Canada and northern USA, widely used for pulp and timber; P. mariana (black spruce) with a similar distribution but growing best on wet sites; P engelmanii, which grows in the western mountains from British Colombia, where it hybridizes with P. glauca, to New Mexico, used for timber; P. sitchensis (Sitka spruce), a coastal species from Alaska to California and also grown extensively in Britain and Denmark, used for pulp and timber; and P. rubens (red spruce), closely related to P. mariana but with a narrow Eastern distribution from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Several Picea species are used as park and garden trees and P. abies is a popular Christmas tree in Scandinavia and elsewhere; (see further Anon 1986, Harlow et al. 1996, Attree et al. 1991, Thompson 1992).

A cDNA clone (lp3) from loblolly pine induced by water deficit stress (WDS) has been isolated. It is preferentially induced in roots with a constitutive basal level of expression also observed in stems and needles. Northern blot analysis with well irrigated ABA-treated seedlings indicated that the overall accumulation of lp3 transcripts in the roots was lower than that of water deficit-stressed seedlings. However, within roots, lp3 was induced by ABA indicating that the expression of lp3 in roots under WDS conditions was partly mediated by ABA. The lp3 clone is similar to a group of genes called asr (ABA stress and ripening) genes identified in several species. A genomic clone (lp3-1) was identified and its putative protein has the hydrophylicity profile similar to that of lp3 except for two deletions in the 5' region. The genomic Southern and RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction) analyses indicate that the lp3 gene belongs to a small multigene family of at least four members with a distinct pattern of expression during WDS.

Slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) is one of the hard yellow pines indigenous to the southeastern United States (Lohrey and Kossuth 1990). It is one of the two southern pines used for naval stores, and is one of the most frequently planted timber species in North America (Lohrey and Kossuth 1990). It is favoured by many forest managers because of its fast growth and excellent utility for pulp, lumber, and poles (Sheffield et al. 1983). It has the smallest native range of the four southern pines and grows naturally from South Carolina south to central Florida and west to Louisiana. It has been established by planting as far north as Tennessee and as far west as eastern Texas, where it now seeds naturally (Lohrey and Kossuth 1990). In the three decades prior to 1980, the P. elliottii ecosystem increased by 22% and peaked in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Sheffield et al. 1983). Today, the rate of planting outside the natural range has slowed compared to the 1950 to 1970 period.

The induction of gene expression in response to environmental or hormonal cues, has been studied mostly at the of transcriptional level. The importance of post-transcriptional events in determining the final protein levels, however, is now becoming clear. As part of a program to investigate gene expression in woody plants growing under water deficit, we have isolated several cDNA clones of a Proteinase Inhibitor-like gene family from the woody desert shrub, Atriplex canescens. Northern analysis shows a broad inducible signal in response to water deficit. Reverse Transcription -PCR (RT-PCR) experiments show that levels of the individual transcripts are altered to different degrees by exposing plants to water deficit or Abscisic acid. Sequence analysis reveals several motifs in the 3′-untranslated region (3′-UTR) of the mRNA which may contribute to RNA stability or translatability. In a parellel program a cDNA for water deficit-repressible gene is shown to have unusual structure. The longest open reading frame begins over halfway through the mRNA and the 5′-untranslated region (5′-UTR) has extensive secondary structure and several upstream open reading frames (uORFs). These 5′-UTR features are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in other eukaryotic systems. Elucildating the function of these sequences will assist in understanding the regulation of stress-inducible genes and in the design of plant transformation vectors to optimize the expression of foreign genes.

Slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) is a hard yellow pine indigenous to southeastern United states. It is a rapid-growing, straight, symmetrical tree attaining a height of 100 ft, with a diameter of 1 m. The wood is considered to be the hardest, strongest, and heaviest of all commercial conifers in the United States. It starts producing seeds at the age of 15–20 years with good production every 2–3 years. It is one of the two southern pines used for naval stores and also one of the most frequently planted timber species in North America (Lohrey & Kossuth, 1990). It is favored by many forest managers because of its fast growth and excellent utility for pulp, lumber, and poles (Sheffield et al., 1983). It has the smallest native range of the four southern pines and grows naturally from south of South Carolina to central Florida and west to Louisiana. However, its range has been extended with northern plantings in Tennessee and western planting in east Texas where it now seeds naturally (Lohrey & Kossuth, 1990). Plantings outside its natural range mostly occurred over three decades spanning from the early 1950s through the latter 1970s. During this time, the slash pine ecosystem increased by 22% (Sheffield et al., 1983).

Clonal propagation of Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.) was achieved by organogenesis on cotyledon explants. The influence of several cytokinins and abscisic acid on adventitious shoot production from cotyledon explants was investigated. Benzyladenine was more effective in shoot induction than three other cytokinins tested. Benzyladenine (22.2 μM) in combination with naphthaleneacetic acid(0.05 μM) in a Gresshoff and Doy (1972) medium was found to increase shoot bud production. Abscisic acid (7.6 μM) in combination with benzyladenine and naphthaleneacetic acid enhanced shoot formation by an additional 65%. Root initiation was achieved with 0.5 strength Gresshoff and Doy media amended with naphthaleneacetic acid (1.3 μM), indole-3-butyric acid (1.2 μM) and benzyladenine (0.4 μM). Over 2400 plantlets from 2 families survived and were transferred to a greenhouse in preparation for field planting. After ten months, the maximum number of surviving plantlets/seed explant from these two sources was 57 for family ALPV-38 and 41 for family ALPV-78, respectively.

Summary Effects of water stress on protein synthesis were investigated in heterotrophic callus cultures derived from slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) cotyledon explants. Cultures were transferred to medium containing O-15% mannitol to provide water potentials between -0.4 and - 2.5 MPa. Beginning between 0 and 22 h after transfer to the new medium, cultures were incubated for 2 h with T-methionine. Both the uptake of label and the incorporation of label into protein decreased with decreasing medium water potential. Incorporation, however, was reduced to a greater extent than uptake suggesting that the reduced incorporation was at least partly the result of reduced protein synthesis. Separation of labeled proteins by one-dimensional SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualization by fluorography revealed the induction of two new protein bands after incubation at - 1.8 MPa for 24 h. Induction of new proteins was not observed at other water potentials or after shorter incubation times. Protein bands from cultures incubated at - 1.8 MPa for 24 h and then transferred for 24 h to mannitol-free medium ( -0.4 MPa) were comparable to those from control cultures maintained on mannitol-free medium throughout.

Summary The relationship between mannitol-induced water stress and protein synthesis was investigated in hypocotyl slices of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Mannitol-.aduced water stress inhibited the incorporation of L-[%]methionine into protein. As the water potential decreased, incorporation of label into protein decreased in both the soluble- and membrane-protein fractions. There were no significant differences in response to water stress among seed sources from four different geographical regions.

Embryogenic callus development was initiated in cultured immature embryo explants of four different genotypes of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) on several culture media supplemented with auxin and cytokinin. Callus induction, either from the suspensor cells at the base of immature embryos or from the cotyledons of immature embryos, started after 1–2 weeks. As the callus started to proliferate, three types of calli were distinguished; white mucilaginous, loose globular, and light green-loose. Histochemical staining, with acetocarmine, indicated that only white mucilaginous calli were embryogenic. Non-embryogenic loose globular and light green-loose calli continued to retain their nature even after several subcultures. The origin of somatic proembryos in Pinus elliottii was from single cells of the suspensor cell callus. The developmental stage of the zygotic immature embryos, genotype and culture medium are critical factors for the production of embryogenic callus. Somatic proembryos are being cultured for further development.

Water status of Pinus taeda L. callus supported on Murashige and Skoog (MS) liquid medium was characterized over an 8 week period using thermocouple psychrometry. Medium with 30 gl−1 sucrose was used to produce a high water potential (Ψw) of −0.4 MPa (H), and the same medium was used to create a moderate Ψw of −0.7 MPa (M) by the addition of 10% polyethylene glycol (PEG, w/v, MW=8000). Calli were produced from cotyledon explants on H medium for 2 weeks and then transferred to either M or H medium. Callus absorption of PEG accounted for 40% of the callus dry weight and less than 7% of the callus fresh weight. Callus dry weight (without the PEG fraction) on M medium was 40% of that observed on H medium. Fresh weight on M medium was only 15% of that observed on H medium. The Ψw of both H and M media remained constant throughout the culture period. On H medium, callus Ψw and osmotic potential (Ψs) both increased 0.05 MPa/week with the callus Ψw approaching that of the external medium. On M medium, callus Ψw and Ψs both decreased more than 0.1 MPa/week with the callus Ψw decreasing greatly below that of the external medium. The latter was attributed to a rapidly produced osmotic shock induced upon callus transfer and/or PEG which caused less callus hydration and resulted in reduced growth. Callus turgor potential (Ψp) was estimated to be +0.02 to +0.09 MPa and turgor was maintained as callus Ψw increased or decreased. After 8 weeks, cell volumes from callus on M medium were 50 to 60% less than on H medium, suggesting that reduced cell volumes were related to turgor maintenance.

Embryogenic callus developed in 55% of the mature embryo explants of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.) growing on a LP medium minus the amino acids and sugars (except sucrose). This is the highest reported yield of embryogenic callus from mature embryos of P. abies that has ever been reported. Callus induction from either the middle or the end of the hypocotyl of the embryos began after 2-3 weeks. Three types of calli were recovered: (a) globular, (b) light green-compact, (c) white mucilaginous. Only the white mucilaginous calli were embryogenic. The globular and light green-compact calli never become embryogenic, even after several subcultures. The development of somatic embryos was accomplished on half-strength macro-elements of NSIII medium containing 1 μM α-naphthaleneacetic acid, 1 μM abscisic acid, and 3% sucrose. The addition of 10(-7) M buthionine sulfoximine to the medium increased the development of somatic embryos by three fold. These results suggest that there is a great potential for increasing the frequency and development of somatic embryos in P. abies. Careful selection of the genotype and modification of the culture medium is required.

Osmotic adjustment is a physiological process by which trees accumulate solutes in response to drought stress. It benefits the plant by maintaining turgor pressure and hence continued but reduced growth. Osmotic adjustment operates by the accumulation of soluble carbohydrates and amino acids within stressed tissues. An indirect consequence of osmotic adjustment is that it raises the nutritive value of affected tissues as a food source for herbivores. Osmotic adjustment without other metabolic changes therefore increases the vulnerability of stressed trees to pest attack.

As supplies of non-renewable fossil fuels decrease and their costs increase, the need for identification and production of renewable energy resources becomes more urgent. Biomass production from terrestrial plants is renewable, and it could contribute significantly to the world’s energy needs. The concept of biomass production involves ‘energy plantations’ which produce crops that are used: (a) directly in combustion to replace coal in industrial plants or provide fuel wood for heating and cooling, or (b) used indirectly as biochemically-transformed fuels such as alcohol or methane.

Silvicultural treatments and the development of site-adapted genotypes can aid in the management of drought-stress in forest species. Both pre- and post-planting silvicultural treatments of the seedling and site have proven effective in enhancing survival and growth under drought-stress conditions. Silvicultural treatments modify the stand and its environment and, consequently tree physiological mechanisms in response to drought; this modifies the water balance in forest stands. Evapotranspiration is directly related to stand leaf area. A balance between water loss and productivity can be accomplished by use of silvicultural regimes which manipulate crop leaf area and eliminate non-crop competing leaf area.

Plant regeneration from protoplasts facilitates gene transfer, somatic cell fusion, and mutation. Genetic variability in plants regenerated from tissue culture is termed “somaclonal variation” (Larkin and Scowcroft, 1981), and we propose that variation observed in protoplast derived plants be referred to as “proto-variation”. Our aims were 1) to regenerate plants from Brassica napus L. protoplasts; and 2) to select desirable proto-variants (p-variants) with herbicide resistance and high seed quantity.