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The economic costs of contagious agalactia (CA) to the small ruminant dairy industry are not well known but include losses due to mortality, lowered milk production, spoiled products, abortions and animal welfare problems, as well as diagnosis and treatment. This paper reports financial estimates made in southern Europe, including a study on small- and large-scale farming systems in Italy, indicating that the financial losses are high and underestimated. Furthermore, the current control strategies, including chemotherapy and vaccination, in selected countries in Europe are described. In some countries, disease control is hampered by excessively strict veterinary legislation which discourages farmers and private veterinarians from notifying outbreaks because it leads to the prohibition of milk sales and can result in delays in lifting restrictions. In addition, new European Union legislation may downgrade the importance of CA, which will have implications for international research efforts. Finally, a series of recommendations are provided that cover the proper notification and handling of CA outbreaks, including movement control, current diagnostics, treatment, vaccination and disinfection.Si le coût économique exact de l’agalaxie contagieuse pour le secteur ovin et caprin de production laitière n’est pas connu, on sait néanmoins qu’il recouvre les pertes dues à la mortalité dans les cheptels, à une chute de la production de lait, aux produits altérés, aux avortements et aux problèmes de bien-être animal, en plus des coûts du diagnostic et des traitements. Les auteurs font état d’estimations financières réalisées en Europe méridionale, dont une étude sur les exploitations familiales et les élevages de grande taille en Italie, qui coïncident dans le constat de pertes financières à la fois importantes et sous-estimées. Les auteurs décrivent également les stratégies de lutte mises en place actuellement par plusieurs pays d’Europe, en particulier l’antibiothérapie et la vaccination. Dans certains pays, les efforts de lutte sont entravés par une législation vétérinaire excessivement rigoureuse qui dissuade les éleveurs et les vétérinaires privés de notifier les foyers car cela entraîne l’interdiction de vendre le lait issu des troupeaux infectés et retarde la levée des mesures de restriction. En outre, la nouvelle réglementation de l’Union européenne risque d’abaisser l’importance de l’agalaxie contagieuse, ce qui aura des conséquences sur les efforts mobilisés par la recherche au niveau international. Pour conclure, les auteurs formulent plusieurs recommandations en vue d’une notification et gestion appropriées des foyers d’agalaxie contagieuse, notamment pour ce qui concerne le contrôle des mouvements d’animaux, les méthodes actuelles de diagnostic, le traitement, la vaccination et la désinfection.Aunque no se conocen bien los costos económicos que la agalaxia contagiosa inflige a la industria lechera de pequeños rumiantes, se sabe que las pérdidas por mortalidad, mengua de la producción lechera, productos echados a perder, abortos y problemas de bienestar animal son un factor importante, sin olvidar los gastos de diagnóstico y tratamiento. Los autores dan cuenta de cálculos económicos realizados en Europa meridional, en particular a raíz de un estudio de pequeñas y grandes explotaciones ganaderas de Italia, que llevaron a la conclusión de que las pérdidas económicas son cuantiosas y están subestimadas. Además, los autores describen los métodos de lucha aplicados actualmente en determinados países de Europa, que incluyen tratamiento medicamentoso y vacunaciones. En algunos países la lucha contra la enfermedad se ve lastrada por una legislación veterinaria demasiado estricta, que no alienta a productores y veterinarios privados a notificar brotes porque ello conduce a la prohibición de las ventas de leche y puede demorar el levantamiento de las restricciones. Por otra parte, hay nuevos textos legislativos de la Unión Europea que quizá vengan a restar importancia a la agalaxia contagiosa, lo que repercutiría en las actividades internacionales de investigación. Por último, los autores formulan una serie de recomendaciones referidas a cuestiones que van desde la correcta notificación y gestión de los brotes de agalaxia contagiosa hasta el control de los desplazamientos, pasando por los procedimientos vigentes de diagnóstico o los métodos de tratamiento, vacunación y desinfección.

Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) was detected for the first time on the European continent in the Thrace region of Turkey in 2002 following outbreaks of an unusually severe respiratory disease in goats. Mycoplasma capricolums ubspecies capripneumoniae (Mccp), the causative agent, was identified in many infected herds throughout the region by serological, bacteriological and molecular biological techniques. However, as no quantitative data on the prevalence and distribution of the disease have been gathered in the intervening years, the extent of infection is unknown. Consequently, in 2014, a random sample of 2,400 goats was drawn from a population of over 167,000 goats in the region by multistage sampling. Serum samples were collected and tested by a monoclonal antibodybased competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). The overall prevalence of CCPP in Thrace was found to be just over 8%. The prevalence in the individual provinces was approximately 18%, 7%, 8% and 6% for Çanakkale, Edirne, K?rklareli and Tekirda?, respectively, while Istanbul province appeared to be CCPP-free. The results showed that CCPP has spread throughout the region and has become endemic, and may pose a potential risk to the neighbouring countries of Greece and Bulgaria. Mccp was regularly detected from lung samples of suspect goats until 2015 but since then there has been no further detection from clinical samples.La pleuropneumonie contagieuse caprine (PPCC) était détectée pour la première fois sur le continent européen en Thrace orientale (Turquie) en 2002, à la suite de foyers d’une maladie respiratoire particulièrement sévère affectant le cheptel caprin. L’agent causal identifié par diverses méthodes sérologiques, bactériologiques et de biologie moléculaire dans plusieurs troupeaux infectés de la région était Mycoplasma capricolum sous-espèce capripneumoniae (Mccp). Cependant, en l’absence de données quantitatives sur la prévalence et la distribution de la maladie depuis ces foyers, l’extension de l’infection est restée inconnue. Pour y remédier, un échantillonnage stratifié et aléatoire de2 400 chèvres parmi une population de plus de 167 000 chèvres de la région a été réalisé en 2014. L’analyse par la méthode immunoenzymatique de compétition (cELISA) faisant appel à des anticorps monoclonaux des sérums collectés a montré que la prévalence globale pour la Thrace orientale était un peu au-dessus de 8 %. Dans les provinces de Çanakkale, d’Edirne, de K?rklareli et de Tekirda?, la prévalence était respectivement de 18 %, 7 %, 8 % et 6 % tandis qu’Istanbul était indemne de PPCC. Ces résultats montrent que la PPCC est devenue endémique dans l’ensemble de la région et représente un risque potentiel pour les pays avoisinants, c’est-à-dire la Grèce et la Bulgarie. Jusqu’en 2015, Mccp a été régulièrement détectée dans les échantillons de poumon prélevés chez des chèvres suspectées infectées mais depuis cette date aucun échantillon clinique n’a été testé positif.En 2002 se detectó por primera vez la pleuroneumonía contagiosa caprina en el continente europeo, a raíz de una serie de brotes de enfermedad respiratoria de inusitada gravedad que afectaron a cabras de la región turca de Tracia. Empleando técnicas serológicas, bacteriológicas y de biología molecular, se detectó en muchos rebaños infectados de toda la región la presencia del agente causal, Mycoplasma capricolum subespecie capripneumoniae (Mccp). Sin embargo, se desconoce el alcance de la infección, porque en los años transcurridos desde entonces no se han reunido datos cuantitativos sobre la prevalencia y distribución de la enfermedad. Por consiguiente en 2014, a partir de una población de más de 167.000 cabras de la región, se obtuvo por muestreo multietápico una muestra aleatoria de 2.400 ejemplares, a los que se extrajeron muestras de suero que fueron sometidas a un ensayo inmunoenzimático de competición (ELISAc) con anticuerpos monoclonales. Se calculó que la prevalencia global de pleuroneumonía contagiosa caprina en Tracia era algo superior al 8%. Por provincias, la prevalencia resultó de alrededor de un 18%, un 7%, un 8% y un 6% en las provincias de Çanakkale, Edirne, K?rklareli y Tekirda?, respectivamente, mientras que la provincia de Estambul resultó estar libre de la infección. Estos resultados demostraron que la enfermedad se ha extendido por toda la región, ha cobrado carácter endémico y puede amenazar a los países vecinos, como Grecia y Bulgaria. Hasta 2015 se detectó regularmente la presencia de Mccp en muestras pulmonares de cabras sospechosas, pero desde entonces no se ha vuelto a observar tal cosa en ninguna muestra clínica.

Despite being eradicated from Europe and probably the rest of the world, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) continues to plague sub-Saharan Africa affecting at least 25 countries, in particular Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania, Cameroon, Angola, Nigeria and Zambia. Evidence has shown that the causative agent, Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides , may have emerged from a closely related goat pathogen as recently as 300 years ago, which corresponds to the first description of CBPP in Europe. Numerous new vaccines have been produced over the last 20 years in an effort to improve on the protection afforded by the T1/44, a live vaccine in continuous use in Africa for over 60 years but none have so far succeeded; indeed, many have exacerbated the condition. In this review, we argue that the present tools for diagnosis and control are adequate for eradication and what is necessary are resources to improve vaccine coverage to levels of at least 80%, last seen in the 1970s when CBPP was restricted to very few countries of Africa. In addition, a study in Namibia supported the concept that strategic and targeted antimicrobial treatment can play a critical part in the control alongside regular and comprehensive vaccination.

Mycoplasma bovis is a major bovine pathogen associated with bovine respiratory disease complex and is responsible for substantial economic losses worldwide. M. bovis is also associated with other clinical presentations in cattle, including mastitis, otitis, arthritis, and reproductive disorders. To gain a better understanding of the genetic diversity of this pathogen, a multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme was developed and applied to the characterization of 137 M. bovis isolates from diverse geographical origins, obtained from healthy or clinically infected cattle. After in silico analysis, a final set of 7 housekeeping genes was selected ( dnaA , metS , recA , tufA , atpA , rpoD , and tkt ). MLST analysis demonstrated the presence of 35 different sequence types (STs) distributed in two main clonal complexes (CCs), defined at the double-locus variant level, namely, CC1, which included most of the British and German isolates, and CC2, which was a more heterogeneous and geographically distant group of isolates, including European, Asian, and Australian samples. Index of association analysis confirmed the clonal nature of the investigated M. bovis population, based on MLST data. This scheme has demonstrated high discriminatory power, with the analysis showing the presence of genetically distant and divergent clusters of isolates predominantly associated with geographical origins.

Mycoplasma bovis is a major bovine pathogen associated with bovine respiratory disease complex and is responsible for substantial economic losses worldwide. M. bovis is also associated with other clinical presentations in cattle, including mastitis, otitis, arthritis, and reproductive disorders. To gain a better understanding of the genetic diversity of this pathogen, a multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme was developed and applied to the characterization of 137 M. bovis isolates from diverse geographical origins, obtained from healthy or clinically infected cattle. After in silico analysis, a final set of 7 housekeeping genes was selected (dnaA, metS, recA, tufA, atpA, rpoD, and tkt). MLST analysis demonstrated the presence of 35 different sequence types (STs) distributed in two main clonal complexes (CCs), defined at the double-locus variant level, namely, CC1, which included most of the British and German isolates, and CC2, which was a more heterogeneous and geographically distant group of isolates, including European, Asian, and Australian samples. Index of association analysis confirmed the clonal nature of the investigated M. bovis population, based on MLST data. This scheme has demonstrated high discriminatory power, with the analysis showing the presence of genetically distant and divergent clusters of isolates predominantly associated with geographical origins.

Objectives M ycoplasma mycoides subspecies capri is one of the causative agents of contagious agalactia in goats. The disease is characterised by mastitis, pneumonia, arthritis, keratitis and in acute cases septicaemia. No vaccine is currently available that has been demonstrated to prevent disease. Methods This study used two-dimensional electrophoresis to separate proteins from whole-cell preparations and tandem mass spectrometry to identify them. Key findings In total, 145 spots were successfully identified corresponding to 74 protein identities. Twenty of these proteins were found to be immunogenic by western blot analysis using a pooled serum sample from experimentally infected goats. Conclusions Six proteins were found to have a less than 95% amino acid similarity to a closely related Mycoplasma species showing that they warrant further evaluation in development of diagnostic tests. These proteins were a dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, phosphoglycerate kinase, pyrimidine-nucleoside phosphorylase, 30S ribosomal protein S6, ribulose-phosphate 3-epimerase and D-lactate dehydrogenase.

Mycoplasmas are responsible for many human and animal diseases and have a tremendous economic and health impact worldwide. They have a pronounced affinity for mucosal surfaces and consequently cause infections of the urogenital and respiratory tracts, but also of the mammary gland and serous membranes, particularly in animals. Mycoplasma infections of small ruminants are known to exist worldwide and cause significant economic impacts because of substantial reductions in milk yield, meat, skins and hair in affected animals; however, little is known of their occurrence in the Middle East. Many mycoplasmas can infect lungs of small ruminants and induce respiratory disease and these Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae , M. mycoides subsp. capri [formerly M. mycoides subsp. mycoides LC (International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes have proposed the merging of these two subspecies into the single subspecies: M. mycoides subsp. capri ; a decision is pending.)] and Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capricolum (Mcc). M. agalactiae and M. putrefaciens can be a major cause of mastitis, arthritis and ocular disease. This review highlights the importance of pathogenic mycoplasmas in small ruminants, including M. putrefasciens which has never been described previously in the Middle East. The isolation of mycoplasmas is considered as one of the more difficult tasks for the diagnostic laboratories due to the inability of mycoplasmas to grow easily in laboratory media. The diagnosis of mycoplasma diseases is complex because clinical signs are not characteristic and antibody response can be transient or delayed in the early phase and non-existent in the final stages. Mycoplasma infections are notoriously difficult to prevent and control, rarely responding well to chemotherapy. Many countries control mycoplasma infections by slaughtering the diseased animals, but this way of control is impractical in the Middle East and especially in Jordan where there are limited funds for compensation. Vaccines may be a more efficient way of preventing the spread of disease but are not widely available and those inactivated mycoplasma vaccines that are available may provide only transient protection.

Mycoplasmas were isolated from freeze-dried lung samples from goats from the western lowlands of Eritea suspected of being affected by contagious caprine pleuropneumonia. The goats belonged to two herds in which mortality and morbidity rates were high. Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae was identified in most samples by the polymerase chain reaction and by conventional serological tests. The latex agglutination test detected more positive serum samples in both herds than did the complement fixation test. Following cloning, the isolates of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae were analysed biochemically and shown to be metabolically similar. They oxidized glucose, N-acetylglucosamine, pyruvate and L-lactate with high affinity and mannose, glucosamine and 2-oxobutyrate with low affinity; they were unable to utilize maltose, trehalose, fructose or ethanol. Major improvements were seen in the growth yield of the Eritrean strains with the addition of pyruvate to the medium. Thus, it may be that organic acids are important energy sources for these strains and may be used in addition to or in place of glucose. In contrast to most other strains of the M. mycoides cluster, the Eritrean strains produced large amounts of hydrogen peroxide during the oxidation of NADH by lysed cells. This characteristic had previously been reported for strain M. F38, the type strain of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae, although strain F38 did not metabolize sugars. Hydrogen peroxide has long been considered a pathogenicity factor in mycoplasma infections. This is the first isolation of M. capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae from Eritrea.

WE wish to report the occurrence and investigation of unusual eggshell defects in a flock of 14,000 free-range layer hens in England. The eggshell defects, associated pattern of reduced egg production and pathological features closely resembled reports from the Netherlands (Feberwee and others 2009a) and Italy (Catania and others 2010) for which the term ‘eggshell apex abnormalities’ (EAA) has been used. In addition to the field cases described in Europe, recent experimental studies have reproduced the condition by sequential inoculation of specific pathogen-free chickens with infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and strains of Mycoplasma synoviae , isolated from the reproductive tracts of birds displaying EAA lesions in the field (Feberwee and others 2009a, Feberwee and Landman 2010), and reasonable protection has been demonstrated with a live M synoviae vaccine (Feberwee and others 2009b). One hypothesis is that certain strains of M synoviae , under particular circumstances, display a tropism for the hen's reproductive tract, where colonisation leads to the production of abnormal eggs with …

Avian encephalomyelitis virus replicated to relatively high titres in chick embryo neuroglial cell cultures, as measured by the indirect fluorescent antibody test, but induced few cytopathic effects. This cell system should provide a good source of virus for serological tests and vaccines.

Potency tests were carried out on live avian encephalomyelitis virus ( aev ) vaccines. Vaccines were titrated in chick embryo brain cell cultures using an indirect fluorescent antibody test just before vaccination. Groups of chickens were inoculated orally with graded doses of each vaccine. After three weeks serum was taken from the chickens and examined for antibodies to aev by indirect enzyme-linked immunoassay ( elisa ). The chickens were then challenged by intracerebral inoculation of virulent aev and monitored for signs attributable to clinical ae . The results showed a relationship between virus content, protection and antibody development. It is recommended that serological evaluation using elisa replace the challenge step in potency tests for live aev vaccines.

Twenty-seven inactivated oil-emulsion Newcastle disease vaccines were tested for potency in chickens. Serum samples from groups given 1/50 dose of vaccine were examined by the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Good correlations were observed between potency and HI titres and between potency and ELISA absorbance. It is recommended that a serology-based potency test replaces the challenge test, reserving challenge only for those batches of vaccines where a clear pass is not indicated.