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Objective: The semen quality of stallions including sperm motility is an important target of selection as it has a high level of individual variability. However, effects of the molecular architecture of the genome on the mechanisms of sperm formation and their preservation after thawing have been poorly investigated. Here, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for the sperm motility of cryopreserved semen in stallions of various breeds.Methods: Semen samples were collected from the stallions of 23 horse breeds. The following semen characteristics were examined: progressive motility (PM), progressive motility after freezing (FPM), and the difference between PM and FPM. The respective DNA samples from these stallions were genotyped using Axiom Equine Genotyping Array.Results: We performed a GWAS search for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and potential genes related to motility properties of frozen-thawed semen in the stallions of various breeds. As a result of the GWAS analysis, two SNP markers, rs1141327473 and rs1149048772, were identified that were associated with preservation of the frozen-thawed stallion sperm motility, the relevant putative candidate genes being NME/NM23 family member 8 (NME8), olfactory receptor family 2 subfamily AP member 1 (OR2AP1), and olfactory receptor family 6 subfamily C member 4 (OR6C4). Potential implications of effects of these genes on sperm motility are herein discussed.Conclusion: The GWAS results enabled us to localize novel SNPs and candidate genes for sperm motility in stallions. Implications of the study for horse breeding and genetics are a better understanding of genomic regions and candidate genes underlying stallion sperm quality, and improvement in horse reproduction and breeding techniques. The identified markers and genes for sperm cryotolerance and the respective genomic regions are promising candidates for further studying the biological processes in the formation and function of the stallion reproductive system.

Modern day conservation professionals are faced with cognitive and emotionally demanding tasks and a wide range of working conditions, which may include long hours, isolation from friends and family, and high levels of uncertainty, e.g. the socio-political contexts in which organizations and their staff must function. Positive adaptation to professional challenges, here referred to as resilience, can help individuals thrive in their role. In this qualitative study, we explored factors relating to positive and negative psychological states. We interviewed twenty-two individuals with professional experience working in high-biodiversity countries that have limited informational, human and financial resources. We used thematic analysis to identify themes and strategies to promote resilience in the workplace. Results revealed factors associated with positive psychological states included answering an occupational calling, achievements, and recognition and appreciation for work. Organisational policies and administration, especially perceived unfairness regarding salaries, recruitment policies, promotion and professional development, were connected to negative psychological states, as were other factors related to the job context. Respondents shared their professional resilience strategies, such as appreciating the positives and maintaining optimism, aligning work with one’s values, and personal reflection and goal setting. Organisations can play an important role in supporting employees in the process of building resilience by addressing basic needs and factors that are of motivational value.

The criteria as laid out by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List are the gold standard by which the extinction risk of a species is assessed and where appropriate biological extinctions are declared. However, unlike all other categories, the category of extinct lacks a quantitative framework for assigning this category. Given its subjective nature, we surveyed expert assessors working on a diversity of taxa to explore the attributes they used to declare a species extinct. Using a choice experiment approach, we surveyed 674 experts from the IUCN Species Survival Commission specialist groups and taskforces. Data availability, time from the last sighting, detectability, habitat availability, and population decline were all important attributes favored by assessors when inferring extinction. Respondents with red-listing experience assigned more importance to the attributes data availability, time from the last sighting, and detectability when considering a species extinction, whereas those respondents working with well-known taxa gave more importance to the time from the last sighting. Respondents with no red-listing experience and those working with more well-known taxa (i.e., mammals and birds) were overall less likely to consider species extinct. Our findings on the importance assessors place on attributes used to declare a species extinct provide a basis for informing the development of specific criteria for more accurately assessing species extinctions.Los criterios establecidos por la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) son la regla de oro con la cual se evalúa el riesgo de extinción de una especie y en donde se declaran las extinciones biológicas. Sin embargo, como con todas las demás categorías, la categoría “extinto” carece de un marco de trabajo cuantitativo para asignar esta categoría. Dada su naturaleza subjetiva, pedimos a los asesores expertos que trabajan con la diversidad de taxones que exploraran los atributos que usan para declarar extinta a una especie. Mediante un experimento de elección, sondeamos a 674 expertos de los grupos especialistas y de trabajo de la Comisión de Supervivencia de Especies de la UICN. La disponibilidad de datos, el tiempo desde la última detección, la detectabilidad, la disponibilidad del hábitat y la declinación poblacional fueron atributos importantes que los asesores favorecieron al inferir las extinciones. Los respondientes con experiencia con la lista roja les asignaron mayor importancia a los atributos de disponibilidad de datos, tiempo desde la última detección y detectabilidad cuando consideraron la extinción de una especie, mientras que los respondientes que trabajan con taxones conocidos le dieron más importancia al tiempo desde la última detección. En general fue menos probable que los respondientes sin experiencia con la lista roja y aquellos que trabajan con los taxones más conocidos (es decir, mamíferos y aves) consideraran extinta a una especie. Nuestros descubrimientos sobre la importancia que los asesores colocan sobre los atributos utilizados para declarar extinta a una especie proporcionan una base para orientar el desarrollo de criterios específicos para evaluar de manera más acertada las extinciones de las especies.《世界自然保护联盟 (IUCN) 红色名录》设定的标准是评估物种灭绝风险以及在适当的情况下宣布生物灭绝的黄金标准。然而, 与所有其它濒危等级不同的是, “灭绝”等级缺乏一个确定该等级的量化框架。鉴于划分这个等级存在主观性, 我们访问调查了研究多种类群的专家评估员, 以探究他们宣布物种灭绝时考虑的因素。本研究利用选择实验的方法, 调查了来自世界自然保护联盟物种生存委员会专家组和工作组的 674 名专家。我们发现, 在推断物种灭绝时, 数据可获得性、距离最后一次发现的时间、可监测性、栖息地可获得性和种群下降情况都是评估者关注的重要属性。曾参与红色名录工作的受访者在分析物种灭绝时, 更重视数据可获得性、距离最后一次发现的时间和可监测性, 而那些研究人们认识较多的类群的受访者则更重视距离最后一次发现的时间。没有参与过红色名录工作的受访者和研究人们认识较多的类群 (即哺乳动物和鸟类) 的受访者总体上更少考虑物种灭绝的问题。以上关于评估者对宣布物种灭绝影响因素的重视程度的结果, 可以为制定更准确地评估物种灭绝的具体标准提供依据。 【翻译: 胡怡思; 审校: 聂永刚】.

Parthenogenesis is a relatively rare event in birds, documented in unfertilized eggs from columbid, galliform, and passerine females with no access to males. In the critically endangered California condor, parentage analysis conducted utilizing polymorphic microsatellite loci has identified two instances of parthenogenetic development from the eggs of two females in the captive breeding program, each continuously housed with a reproductively capable male with whom they had produced offspring. Paternal genetic contribution to the two chicks was excluded. Both parthenotes possessed the expected male ZZ sex chromosomes and were homozygous for all evaluated markers inherited from their dams. These findings represent the first molecular marker-based identification of facultative parthenogenesis in an avian species, notably of females in regular contact with fertile males, and add to the phylogenetic breadth of vertebrate taxa documented to have reproduced via asexual reproduction.

Many species are facing unprecedented population size declines and deterioration of their environment. This exposes species to genomic erosion, which we define here as the damage inflicted to a species’ genome or gene pool due to a loss of genetic diversity, an increase in expressed genetic load, maladaptation, and/or genetic introgression. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) bases its extinction risk assessments on direct threats to population size and habitat. However, it does not assess the long-term impacts of genomic erosion, and hence, it is likely to underestimate the extinction risk of many species. High-quality whole genome sequence data that is currently being generated could help improve extinction risk assessments. Genomic data contains information about a species’ past demography, its genome-wide genetic diversity, the incidence of genetic introgression, as well as the genetic load of deleterious mutations. Computer modelling of these data enables forecasting of population trajectories under different management scenarios. In this Perspective, we discuss the threats posed by genomic erosion. Using evolutionary genomic simulations, we argue that whole genome sequence data provides critical information for assessing the extinction risk and recovery potential of species. Genomics-informed assessments of the extinction risk complement the IUCN Red List, and such genomics-informed conservation is invaluable in guiding species recovery programs in the UN’s Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and beyond.

An appreciation of the synergy between genome and phenome of poultry breed is essential for a complete understanding of their biology. Phenotypic traits are shaped under the influence of artificial, production-oriented, selection that often acts contrary to that which would occur during natural selection. In this comparative study, we analysed the phenotypic diversity of 39 chicken breeds and populations that make up a significant part of the world gene pool. Grouping patterns of breeds found within the traditional, phenotypic models of their classification/clustering required in-depth analysis using sophisticated mathematical approaches. As a result of studying performance and conformation phenotypes, a phenomenon of previously underestimated variability in pectoral angle (PA) was revealed. Moreover, patterns of PA relationship with productive traits were analysed. We propose using PA measurement as a promising new auxiliary index for selecting hens and roosters of breeding flocks in egg production improvement programs.

Most of the global population are urban, with inhabitants exposed to raised levels of pollution. Pollutants negatively impact human wellbeing, and can alter the structure and diversity of ecosystems. Contrastingly, urban biodiversity can positively contribute to human wellbeing. We know little, however, about whether the negative impacts of pollution on wellbeing could be lessened for householders living on more biodiverse streets, as the complex interlinkages between pollution, biodiversity and wellbeing have rarely been examined. Here, we used structural equation modelling to simultaneously test whether biodiversity (actual and perceived) mediates the relationship between traffic-related pollution (noise, dB; nitrogen dioxide, NO2) or air pollution (PM2.5) and wellbeing (mental wellbeing, happiness). In summer 2019, we conducted questionnaires and biodiversity surveys, and collected noise and air pollution data, from households (n = 282) across the streetscapes of Leeds, UK. Biodiversity (actual or perceived) showed no mediating effects. However, increased flowering plant richness was positively associated with mental wellbeing. Traffic-related pollution negatively affected pollinator and flowering plant richness, but not wellbeing. This could be because householders are not exposed to high levels of noise or NO2 because they do not maintain front gardens on noisier streets. There was no measurable effect of air pollution on biodiversity or wellbeing. These findings shed light on the complex mechanisms through which biodiversity could improve human wellbeing. Enhancing the diversity of plant species in streetscapes would have a positive effect on wellbeing, further emphasising the important role that biodiverse urban streetscapes play in improving the liveability of cities.

The current extinction crisis demands worldwide commitment to conservation across all sectors of society. By transcending the traditional disciplinary boundaries, conservationists can reach new audiences to communicate pro‐conservation knowledge, education and awareness messages. There are approximately 2.7 billion video‐gamers worldwide, with millions more joining as a result of global lockdowns. In March 2020, Animal Crossing: New Horizons was released by Nintendo, fast becoming the second‐best selling video game ever in Japan, and selling over 26.4 million units worldwide. Unlike many popular video games, its unique premise involves players creating an island, growing vegetation, catching wildlife and donating fossils and species to a museum. The game has been praised for its positivity, escapism and measurable benefits to mental well‐being. Here, we articulate how different features of the game, including the islands, their biodiversity and inhabitants, encourage players to exhibit pro‐conservation behaviours and attitudes (e.g. recycling litter, or planting a diversity of flowers), as well as improving players’ knowledge about the diversity of relatively little known taxa (marine and freshwater fishes and invertebrates). We also highlight where pitfalls exist (e.g. encouraging the collection of threatened species). We principally frame these discussions in the context of Japan's cultural relationship with the natural world, including its history of insect‐collecting and its management of green spaces. We conclude by outlining some recommendations about potential improvements to future releases, or for similar games, that could further promote conservation messaging. This perspective sheds light on the avenues through which Animal Crossing: New Horizons encourages pro‐conservation knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of its international audience, with potential for these experiences to translate into real‐world conservation actions. During a critical time in humanity's history, video gaming could therefore provide a huge opportunity for communicating conservation messages to billions of people worldwide. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Internet-based research is increasingly important for conservation science and has wide-ranging applications and contexts, including culturomics, illegal wildlife trade, and citizen science. However, online research methods pose a range of ethical and legal challenges. Online data may be protected by copyright, database rights, or contract law. Privacy rights may also restrict the use and access of data, as well as ethical requirements from institutions. Online data have real-world meaning, and the ethical treatment of individuals and communities must not be marginalized when conducting internet-based research. As ethics frameworks originally developed for biomedical applications are inadequate for these methods, we propose that research activities involving the analysis of preexisting online data be treated analogous to offline social science methods, in particular, nondeceptive covert observation. By treating internet users and their data with respect and due consideration, conservationists can uphold the public trust needed to effectively address real-world issues.Ética y Gestión para la Investigación Científica de la Conservación Basada en Internet Resumen La investigación basada en internet es cada vez más importante para las ciencias de la conservación, además de tener contextos y aplicaciones de gran alcance como el análisis de textos, el mercado ilegal de fauna y la ciencia ciudadana. Sin embargo, los métodos de investigación en línea representan una gama de retos éticos y legales pues los datos virtuales pueden estar protegidos por derechos de autor, derechos de base de datos o leyes contractuales. Además, los derechos de privacidad pueden restringir el uso y el acceso a los datos, así como también los requerimientos éticos impuestos por las instituciones. Los datos virtuales tienen valor en el mundo real y el tratamiento ético de los individuos y de las comunidades no se debe marginalizar cuando se realiza una investigación por internet. Ya que los marcos éticos desarrollados originalmente para aplicarse en temas biomédicos son inadecuados para estos métodos, proponemos que las actividades de investigación que involucran el análisis de los datos virtuales preexistentes sean tratadas como análogas a los métodos no virtuales de las ciencias sociales, especialmente la observación encubierta no engañosa. Si se trata a los usuarios del internet y a sus datos con respeto y la consideración debida, los conservacionistas pueden mantener la confianza pública necesaria para tratar efectivamente los asuntos del mundo real.

The impacts of high ambient temperatures on mortality in humans and domestic animals are well‐understood. However much less is known about how hot weather affects mortality in wild animals. High ambient temperatures have been associated with African wild dog Lycaon pictus pup mortality, suggesting that high temperatures might also be linked to high adult mortality.We analyzed mortality patterns in African wild dogs radio‐collared in Kenya (0°N), Botswana (20°S), and Zimbabwe (20°S), to examine whether ambient temperature was associated with adult mortality.We found that high ambient temperatures were associated with increased adult wild dog mortality at the Kenya site, and there was some evidence for temperature associations with mortality at the Botswana and Zimbabwe sites.At the Kenya study site, which had the highest human impact, high ambient temperatures were associated with increased risks of wild dogs being killed by people, and by domestic dog diseases. In contrast, temperature was not associated with the risk of snare‐related mortality at the Zimbabwe site, which had the second‐highest human impact. Causes of death varied markedly between sites.Pack size was positively associated with survival at all three sites.These findings suggest that while climate change may not lead to new causes of mortality, rising temperatures may exacerbate existing anthropogenic threats to this endangered species, with implications for conservation. This evidence suggests that temperature‐related mortality, including interactions between temperature and other anthropogenic threats, should be investigated in a greater number of species to understand and mitigate likely impacts of climate change. ​, We analyzed mortality in African wild dogs across three sites with differing human pressures. We show that at one site there is an impact of high temperatures on African wild dog mortality and that temperature and human pressure can interact to impact African wild dog mortality. These findings suggest that rising temperatures may exacerbate existing anthropogenic threats to this endangered species. ​

The mammoth ivory trade is a growing and prominent trade of a wildlife product due to the ever-melting Siberian permafrost and has recently been regularly linked to the elephant ivory trade. The link to the elephant ivory trade has caused conservationists and organisations to pay attention to the trade and led to the proposal of listing the woolly mammoth on CITES Appendix II by Israel at the seventeenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. This proposal has led to further discussion of the mammoth ivory trade during future meeting and eventually the proposal was rejected by CITES parties, however, the commission of a study investigating the effect of mammoth ivory on elephant ivory was of great importance. This study aims to; explore the mammoth ivory trade and its links to the trade in elephant ivory; where is the trade occurring? Is the trade increasing, what regulations are in place? Does the mammoth ivory trade overlap with the elephant ivory trade? What is the price of mammoth ivory and does it have a relationship with elephant ivory prices? Is mammoth ivory promoting the illegal trade and laundering of elephant ivory? To what extent can elephant ivory be sold as mammoth ivory? And, Should the woolly mammoth be listed on CITES Appendix II? These questions are investigated in Chapter 2 by carrying out a systematic evidence review on seven different search engines; Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, Microsoft Academic, World Wide Science, Science and JSTOR, using seven search terms; "Mammoth ivory" AND "trade", "Mammoth" AND "elephant poaching", "Mammoth" AND "illegal trade", "Mammoth ivory" AND "elephant ivory", "Elephant ivory" AND "drivers", "Mammoth" AND "illegal ivory" and "Mammoth ivory" AND "demand". To fill gaps in knowledge left by the systematic evidence review questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were conducted in Chapter 3. After sending a total of 1050 emails to 317 individuals, academics, non-governmental organisations, governmental organisation, and law enforcement officers I received 13 completed questionnaires, 8 partially completed questionnaires and conducted 3 interviews. From both data collection methods there were some key findings. China has become the largest market for mammoth ivory overtaking Hong Kong (SAR) of China, the mammoth ivory trade is rapidly increasing, especially in China where the trade could be considered as big as the elephant ivory trade. There is very little mammoth ivory regulations in the largest market, China, and the regulations that in place for elephant ivory, such as; ID cards for elephant ivory and the domestic closure of the elephant ivory market are increasing the demand for mammoth ivory and facilitating the opportunity of elephant ivory laundering. The price of mammoth ivory is increasing, however, there is little knowledge on the subject and how the price of mammoth ivory is affecting the demand and price of elephant ivory. Finally, the laundering of elephant ivory through the mammoth ivory trade was determined to not be significantly impacting the poaching rates and elephant populations. From the data collected from questionnaires and interviews there was agreement that the woolly mammoth should not be listed on CITES Appendix II. Conservation efforts were recommended to focus mainly on holding discussions with representatives from China and Russia on what legislation can be implemented which will benefit both countries and the trade and stocks of mammoth ivory. This study explores new information on the mammoth ivory trade and has some important findings which help decisions on the regulation of the trade. However, due to the low number of questionnaires completed and interviews conducted, especially from the four largest markets for mammoth ivory should be addressed by CITES by ensuring that a follow up study is conducted. This study should focus on collecting data from the source of the trade and where demand is largest, Russia and China. Moreover, it should investigate the impacts of new legislation in the US, Israel, China, and Hong Kong (SAR) of China on the demand of mammoth and elephant ivory and the relationship between the price of both ivory trades. By doing so, we can gather an even greater understanding of the mammoth ivory trade and its relationship with the elephant ivory trade before any decisions are\ud made.

Anthropogenic-driven species extinctions are radically changing the biosphere. Biological communities may become increasingly similar to or dissimilar from one another via the processes of biotic homogenisation or heterogenisation. A key question is how the conversion of native forests to agriculture may influence these processes by driving changes in the occurrence patterns of restricted-range endemic species versus wide-ranging generalists. We examined biotic homogenisation and heterogenisation in bird communities on the Southeast Asian islands of Borneo, Sulawesi, Seram, Buru, Talaud and Sangihe. Each island is characterised by high levels of avian endemism, and unique spatial configuration of forest conversion to agriculture. Forest conversion to agriculture influenced the patterns of biotic homogenisation on five islands. Bird communities became increasingly dissimilar to forest reference communities relative to localised patterns of deforestation. Turnover led to species with larger global range-sizes dominating communities at the expense of island endemics and ecological specialists. Within islands, forest conversion did not result in clear changes to β-diversity, whereas between-island communities became increasingly similar with greater deforestation, implying that patterns of forest conversion profoundly affect biotic homogenisation. Our findings elucidate how continued conversion of forests is causing the replacement of endemic species by a small cohort of shared ubiquitous species with potentially strong negative consequences for ecosystem functioning and resilience. Halting reorganisation of the biosphere via the loss of range-restricted species and spread of wide-ranged generalists will require improved efforts to reduce the impacts of deforestation particularly in regions with high endemism.

Trade in wildlife is increasingly moving online, which creates significant challenges for monitoring. Numerous reports have highlighted the extent of the trade but they rarely present a methodology to facilitate replication or any form of meta-analysis. Here we present a systematic approach to surveying online trade in wildlife that builds on the well-established systematic evidence review approach. We apply this approach to investigate the online trade in saiga antelope Saiga tatarica horns on Russian-language websites. Of the 419 advertisements, the majority (217, 52%) were from Ukraine, followed by Russia (122, 29%), and were largely offers to sell (254, 61%), and represented one-off advertisements. Trade was identified on 89 websites, with the majority being on classified ads websites (68, 76%), auction.violity.com being the most popular site (156, 37%). Prices varied significantly depending on the country and how the horn was being offered (i.e. by weight or length). It is clear that saiga horn is being traded over the internet, with Ukraine and Russia comprising c. 80% of advertisements on Russian-language websites. Individuals with single advertisements dominate, suggesting website fidelity, although website usage is country-specific, potentially reflecting domestic trade. This suggests country-specific interventions could be particularly effective. A systematic approach for investigating online wildlife trade provides a clear and transparent methodology, and, given data collection is resource-intensive, allows studies to be replicated so that trends can be identified. However, this is only possible if published studies report the methodology used.

Wildlife fences are often considered an important tool in conservation. Fences are used in attempts to prevent human–wildlife conflict and reduce poaching, despite known negative impacts on landscape connectivity and animal movement patterns. Such impacts are likely to be particularly important for wide-ranging species, such as the African wild dog Lycaon pictus, which requires large areas of continuous habitat to fulfil its resource requirements. Laikipia County in northern Kenya is an important area for wild dogs but new wildlife fences are increasingly being built in this ecosystem. Using a long-term dataset from the area's free-ranging wild dog population, we evaluated the effect of wildlife fence structure on the ability of wild dogs to cross them. The extent to which fences impeded wild dog movement differed between fence designs, although individuals crossed fences of all types. Purpose-built fence gaps increased passage through relatively impermeable fences. Nevertheless, low fence permeability can lead to packs, or parts of packs, becoming trapped on the wrong side of a fence, with consequences for population dynamics. Careful evaluation should be given to the necessity of erecting fences; ecological impact assessments should incorporate evaluation of impacts on animal movement patterns and should be undertaken for all large-scale fencing interventions. Where fencing is unavoidable, projects should use the most permeable fencing structures possible, both in the design of the fence and including as many purpose-built gaps as possible, to minimize impacts on wide-ranging wildlife.

Robust impact evaluations are needed for conservation to learn and grow as a field. Currently we lack a large body of evidence on the effects of behaviour change interventions in social‐ecological systems. By uncovering mechanistic relationships and establishing causality we can refine future programmes to enhance likelihood of effectiveness. Although a range of sophisticated methodological approaches to evaluation have been developed, conceptually linking project outcomes with conservation impacts remains difficult in complex systems. For example, sea turtles are one taxon in which unsustainable harvesting has been a particular problem. There have been a number of campaigns to reduce demand for sea turtle products, but we still have little evidence documenting their outcomes. We conducted the first formal impact evaluation of a conservation marketing campaign aimed at reducing the consumption of sea turtle meat and eggs. The campaign took place on the island of São Tomé, Central Africa, and included traditional mass media advertisements as well as community events. This is one of few demand reduction evaluations that has assessed both human behaviour and biological conservation outcomes. It benefited from an advantageous setting for evaluation, as nesting sea turtles are relatively easy to monitor and the island's small size and geographic isolation increased the detectability of potentially confounding factors. We found a decrease in self‐reported sea turtle egg consumption and a decrease in poaching of adult sea turtles. However, multiple unforeseen difficulties arose which complicated attempts at causal attribution. We were hampered by spatial spillovers, design effects from the sensitive questioning technique, concurring law enforcement and changes in biological monitoring effort. These challenges highlight the difficulties faced by practitioners seeking to apply impact evaluations in the field. We reflect on what this means for future impact evaluations of behaviour change interventions in conservation. Our recommendations include combining multiple outcome measures to triangulate hard‐to‐measure behaviours and theory‐based evaluation methods to explore causal impacts. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Building trust in science and evidence-based decision-making depends heavily on the credibility of studies and their findings. Researchers employ many different study designs that vary in their risk of bias to evaluate the true effect of interventions or impacts. Here, we empirically quantify, on a large scale, the prevalence of different study designs and the magnitude of bias in their estimates. Randomised designs and controlled observational designs with pre-intervention sampling were used by just 23% of intervention studies in biodiversity conservation, and 36% of intervention studies in social science. We demonstrate, through pairwise within-study comparisons across 49 environmental datasets, that these types of designs usually give less biased estimates than simpler observational designs. We propose a model-based approach to combine study estimates that may suffer from different levels of study design bias, discuss the implications for evidence synthesis, and how to facilitate the use of more credible study designs., Randomised controlled experiments are the gold standard for scientific inference, but environmental and social scientists often rely on different study designs. Here the authors analyse the use of six common study designs in the fields of biodiversity conservation and social intervention, and quantify the biases in their estimates.

As part of the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework, nations are assessing progress over the past decade in addressing the underlying drivers that influence direct pressures on biodiversity and formulating new policies and strategies for the decade to come. For marine conservation, global marine protected area (MPA) coverage is still falling short of the 10% target set in 2010. Here we show that while this reflects a lack of progress in many low- and middle-income countries, a few of these nations have met or exceeded international commitments. To provide an in-depth explanation of how this was achieved in Gabon, we summarize the lessons learnt by our consortium of policy makers and practitioners who helped implement a comprehensive and ecologically representative network of 20 MPAs. We show the importance of creating a national framework, building long-term stakeholder support, and focusing on research that guides implementation and policy; and outline a four-step approach that countries and donors could use as an example to help meet international commitments. By responding to calls to share lessons learned to inform future Convention on Biological Diversity targets, we show how Gabon's experiences could inform change elsewhere.

Significance Forest restoration has become a global conservation priority, particularly in the tropics where a significant proportion of remaining forest ecosystems are degraded. To achieve ambitious restoration targets via limited conservation funds, areas that will deliver the greatest biodiversity value must be prioritized. Here, we combine airborne laser scanning with an extensive camera trap dataset to target conservation and restoration across a degraded logged forest gradient. We demonstrate the importance of accounting for three-dimensional habitat structure when defining forest suitability and restoration potential for mammals. Consequently, we provide a robust quantitative framework to prioritize degraded forest restoration based on biodiversity considerations., Tropical forest ecosystems are facing unprecedented levels of degradation, severely compromising habitat suitability for wildlife. Despite the fundamental role biodiversity plays in forest regeneration, identifying and prioritizing degraded forests for restoration or conservation, based on their wildlife value, remains a significant challenge. Efforts to characterize habitat selection are also weakened by simple classifications of human-modified tropical forests as intact vs. degraded, which ignore the influence that three-dimensional (3D) forest structure may have on species distributions. Here, we develop a framework to identify conservation and restoration opportunities across logged forests in Borneo. We couple high-resolution airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and camera trap data to characterize the response of a tropical mammal community to changes in 3D forest structure across a degradation gradient. Mammals were most responsive to covariates that accounted explicitly for the vertical and horizontal characteristics of the forest and actively selected structurally complex environments comprising tall canopies, increased plant area index throughout the vertical column, and the availability of a greater diversity of niches. We show that mammals are sensitive to structural simplification through disturbance, emphasizing the importance of maintaining and enhancing structurally intact forests. By calculating occurrence thresholds of species in response to forest structural change, we identify areas of degraded forest that would provide maximum benefit for multiple high-conservation value species if restored. The study demonstrates the advantages of using LiDAR to map forest structure, rather than relying on overly simplistic classifications of human-modified tropical forests, for prioritizing regions for restoration.

When evaluating the impact of a biodiversity conservation intervention, a counterfactual is typically needed. Counterfactuals are possible alternative system trajectories in the absence of an intervention. Comparing observed outcomes against the chosen counterfactual allows the impact (change attributable to the intervention) to be determined. Because counterfactuals by definition never occur, they must be estimated. Sometimes, there may be many plausible counterfactuals, including various drivers of biodiversity change and defined on a range of spatial or temporal scales. Here, we posit that, by definition, conservation interventions always take place in social-ecological systems (SES) (i.e., ecological systems integrated with human actors). Evaluating the impact of an intervention in an SES, therefore, means taking into account the counterfactuals assumed by different human actors. Use of different counterfactuals by different actors will give rise to perceived differences in the impacts of interventions, which may lead to disagreement about its success or the effectiveness of the underlying approach. Despite that there are biophysical biodiversity trends, it is often true that no single counterfactual is definitively the right one for conservation assessment, so multiple evaluations of intervention efficacy could be considered justifiable. Therefore, we propose calculating the sum of perceived differences, which captures the range of impact estimates associated with different actors in a given SES. The sum of perceived differences gives some indication of how closely actors in an SES agree on the impacts of an intervention. We applied the concept of perceived differences to a set of global, national, and regional case studies (e.g., global realization of Aichi Target 11 for marine protected areas, effect of biodiversity offsetting on vegetation condition in Australia, and influence of conservation measures on an endangered ungulate in Central Asia). We explored approaches for minimizing the sum, including a combination of negotiation and structured decision making, careful alignment of expectations on scope and measurement, and explicit recognition of any intractable differences between stakeholders.Reconciliación de Múltiples Hipótesis de Contraste al Evaluar el Impacto de la Conservación de la Biodiversidad en los Sistemas Socio-Ecológicos Resumen Cuando se evalúa el impacto de una intervención de conservación de la biodiversidad, generalmente se requiere una hipótesis de contraste. Las hipótesis de contraste son las posibles trayectorias alternativas del sistema en ausencia de una intervención. La comparación de los resultados observados con la hipótesis de contraste elegida permite que se determine el impacto (cambio atribuible a la intervención). Ya que las hipótesis de contraste por definición nunca ocurren, éstas deben ser estimadas. En algunos casos es posible que existan muchas hipótesis de contraste, incluyendo a muchos conductores del cambio en la biodiversidad, y que estén definidas bajo una gama de escalas espaciales o temporales. En este artículo planteamos que, por definición, las intervenciones de conservación siempre ocurren en sistemas socioecológicos (SES) (es decir, sistemas ecológicos integrados con actores humanos). Por lo tanto, la evaluación del impacto de una intervención en un SES implica la consideración de las hipótesis de contraste asumidas por los diferentes actores humanos. El uso de diferentes hipótesis de contraste por los diferentes actores hará que surjan diferencias percibidas en los impactos de las intervenciones, lo que puede llegar a discrepancias sobre su éxito o sobre la efectividad de la estrategia subyacente. A pesar de que existen tendencias biofísicas de la biodiversidad, con frecuencia es cierto que no hay una sola hipótesis de contraste que sea correcta de manera definitiva para la evaluación de la conservación, por lo que múltiples evaluaciones de la eficiencia de la intervención podrían considerarse como justificables. Así, proponemos que se calcule la suma de las diferencias percibidas, la cual captura la gama de las estimaciones de impacto asociadas con diferentes actores en un SES dado. La suma de las diferencias percibidas nos da algún tipo de indicación sobre cuán de acuerdo están los actores de un SES sobre los impactos de una intervención. Aplicamos el concepto de diferencias percibidas a un conjunto de estudios de caso mundiales, nacionales y regionales (p. ej.: la realización mundial del Objetivo Aichi 11 para las áreas marinas protegidas, el efecto de la compensación de la biodiversidad sobre las condiciones botánicas en Australia y la influencia de las medidas de conservación sobre un ungulado en peligro en Asia central). Exploramos las estrategias para minimizar la suma, incluyendo una combinación de negociación y toma estructurada de decisiones, la alineación cuidadosa de las expectativas sobre el enfoque y la medida y el reconocimiento explícito de cualquier diferencia intratable entre los actores sociales.在评估生物多样性保护干预措施的影响时, 通常需要一个反设事实。反设事实是在没有干预的情况下可能的替代性系统轨迹。将观察到的结果与选择的反设事实进行比较, 则可以确定影响 (干预引起的变化) 。由于从定义上讲, 反设事实永远不会发生, 因此必须对其进行估计。然而, 有时可能存在许多看似合理的反设事实, 包括生物多样性变化的各种驱动因素, 并且可以在不同的时空尺度范围内加以定义。本研究假定, 根据定义, 保护干预总是发生在社会生态系统中 (即生态系统与人类行为相结合) 。因此, 评估一项干预措施对社会生态系统的影响需要考虑不同人类行为的反设事实。针对不同行动者使用不同的反设事实, 会导致干预措施的影响也出现明显差异, 这可能使人们对干预成功与否或方法有效性的评估产生分歧。虽然存在生物物理上的生物多样性趋势, 但往往没有单一的反设事实在保护评估中绝对适用, 因此应当对干预效果进行多重评估。我们建议计算可观测的差异的总和, 这样可以包含既定社会生态系统中不同行动者的影响估计范围。观测差异的总和还可以在一定程度上表明社会生态系统中的行动者对干预影响的一致性。我们将观测差异的概念应用于一系列全球、国家和区域的案例研究中 (如爱知目标 11 中海洋保护区的全球实现情况、澳大利亚生物多样性补偿对植被的影响, 以及中亚的保护措施对一种濒危有蹄类动物的影响)。本研究进一步探索了使观测总差异最小化的方法, 包括结合协商与结构化决策, 仔细调整对影响范围和测定结果的期望, 以及清楚认识到利益相关者之间难以处理的差异。【翻译: 胡怡思; 审校: 聂永刚】.

Over the past 20 years, GPS collars have emerged as powerful tools for the study of nonhuman primate (hereafter, "primate") movement ecology. As the size and cost of GPS collars have decreased and performance has improved, it is timely to review the use and success of GPS collar deployments on primates to date. Here we compile data on deployments and performance of GPS collars by brand and examine how these relate to characteristics of the primate species and field contexts in which they were deployed. The compiled results of 179 GPS collar deployments across 17 species by 16 research teams show these technologies can provide advantages, particularly in adding to the quality, quantity, and temporal span of data collection. However, aspects of this technology still require substantial improvement in order to make deployment on many primate species pragmatic economically. In particular, current limitations regarding battery lifespan relative to collar weight, the efficacy of remote drop-off mechanisms, and the ability to remotely retrieve data need to be addressed before the technology is likely to be widely adopted. Moreover, despite the increasing utility of GPS collars in the field, they remain substantially more expensive than VHF collars and tracking via handheld GPS units, and cost considerations of GPS collars may limit sample sizes and thereby the strength of inferences. Still, the overall high quality and quantity of data obtained, combined with the reduced need for on-the-ground tracking by field personnel, may help defray the high equipment cost. We argue that primatologists armed with the information in this review have much to gain from the recent, substantial improvements in GPS collar technology.

Questions: It is frequently reported that overstocking of camels, cattle and goats is degrading the Anogeissus cloud forest, which is endemic to a 200 km stretch of coastal mountains in southern Arabia. However, livestock impacts on the vegetation have not been assessed. Furthermore, we have a limited understanding of the impacts of large-bodied browsing livestock, such as camels, in woodland and forest rangelands. Therefore, in this study, we examine the effects of livestock browsing on the species composition, density, and hytomorphology of woody vegetation in the Anogeissus cloud forests in the Dhofar Mountains of Oman. \ud Location: Data was collected at 30 sites in the Jabal Qamar mountain range in western Dhofar, Oman. \ud Methods: The point-centered quarter method was used to sample the composition, density and structure of woody vegetation. Constrained correspondence analysis was used to quantify the effects of livestock browsing on woody plant species composition, whilst effects on plant density were analysed using mixed effects models. Standardised major axis regression was used to examine differences in height-diameter allometry (stunting) under different stocking rates. \ud Results: Fog density, topographic position and long-term stocking rates were found to be important factors affecting woody species composition. We found lower species diversity and plant density, and higher frequencies of unpalatable species, under higher stocking rates. Juveniles showed a stronger response to stocking rates than adults, and several common species exhibited stunted morphology under high stocking rates. \ud Conclusions: Browsing by large-bodied livestock, such as camels and cattle, can substantially alter the species composition, structure, and phytomorphology of woody vegetation in semi-arid woodlands and forests. Juveniles are particularly susceptible to browsing which alters woody vegetation demography and inhibits regeneration potential. Our results support previous suggestions of overstocking in Dhofar and highlight the importance of swift measures to reduce livestock browsing pressure in the Anogeissus cloud forests.

The international trade in lion (Panthera leo) products, particularly bone, has increased substantially over the last decade. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has established a zero-export quota for wild-origin lion bones. Whilst the trade of lion bone is permittable from captive-bred South African populations, there is no established method to differentiate between captive and wild-sourced lion derivatives in trade. This study acts as a preliminary investigation, by examining the stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope composition of hair from wild and captive lion populations as well as wild prey animals in South Africa, to judge the accuracy and applicability of this method for future bone analysis. Isotopic values for δ15N are found to be significantly enriched in some wild populations, however it is not possible to discriminate between captive and wild populations using δ13C analysis alone. Using the classification algorithm k-Nearest Neighbour, the origin of simulated data was identified with 70% accuracy. When using the model to test the origin of seized samples, 63% were classified as of wild origin. Our study indicates the potential for stable isotope analysis to discriminate between captive and wild populations. Additional study of captive husbandry, and analysis of bone samples from populations of a known origin and feeding regime is recommended to improve the utility of this method for maintaining transparency in trade.

The distribution assessment and monitoring of species is key to reliable environmental impact assessments and conservation interventions. Considerable effort is directed towards survey and monitoring of great crested newts (Triturus cristatus) in England. Surveys are increasingly undertaken using indirect methodologies, such as environmental DNA (eDNA). We used a large data set to estimate national pond occupancy rate, as well as false negative and false positive error rates, for commercial eDNA protocols. Additionally, we explored a range of habitat, landscape and climatic variables as predictors of pond occupancy. In England, 20% of ponds were estimated to be occupied by great crested newts. Pond sample collection error rates were estimated as 5.2% false negative and 1.5% false positive. Laboratory error indicated a negligible false negative rate when 12 qPCR replicates were used. Laboratory false positive error was estimated at 2% per qPCR replicate and is therefore exaggerated by high levels of laboratory replication. Including simple habitat suitability variables into the model revealed the importance of fish, plants and shading as predictors of newt presence. However, variables traditionally considered as important for newt presence may need more precise and consistent measurement if they are to be employed as reliable predictors in modelling exercises.

In Southeast Asia, songbirds, parrots, owls, woodpeckers, and eagles are in high demand. The depletion of wild bird populations in this region led to the declaration of an Asian Songbird Extinction Crisis in 2017. This trade is megadiverse, and there is a lack of technology to identify the many bird species that appear in wildlife markets. This thesis focuses on bird trade in Indonesia and China, where demand for songbirds is particularly intense. To test if machine learning is viable for this problem, Chapter 2 sets a baseline for human identification error with a matching task requiring same/different decisions for pairings of 19 species. Chapter 3 trained, tested, and compared the capabilities of five deep learning computer vision networks and an ensemble of all networks, using a custom-built data collection, processing, and training pipeline. The best model (using the DenseNet-201 network) achieved a high test prediction accuracy (94.4%), using cross-validation for 37 classes on unseen data. We also demonstrate the effects of the visual dominance of cages (25%, 50% and 75% of images occluded) on test accuracy, precision, recall and the F1-score by artificially placing cage bars in the foreground of images for a subset of 26 species. Chapter 4 builds on Chapters 2 and 3 by comparing the human baseline to the top-performing computer model trained to identify the same species. The computer model performed better than the average human accuracy but worse than the best human score. These results suggest that computers can reliably outperform the average, non-expert human in bird identification tasks. It is hoped that this work will help demystify previous roadblocks for using machine learning to identify birds from pictures in wildlife markets. Image-based machine learning approaches hold great promise for identifying birds and other taxa in highly occluded environments.

Human actions are having widespread, profound, and growing impacts on the global environment. This is converting habitats, driving biodiversity loss, and eroding ecosystem functions that support human livelihoods, health, and well-being. Protected areas remain a cornerstone of efforts to abate environmental destruction, safeguard biological diversity and maintain ecosystem functions, but they must formalise and incorporate other effective area-based conservation measures into conservation planning and monitoring frameworks. Given the rapid onset of anthropogenic climate change and the failure to halt environmental destruction, there is also a widely recognised need to restore ecosystems based on their benefits to biodiversity, ecosystems and people. This has the potential to revolutionise conservation actions, moving away from a protectionist history into a paradigm of creation and co-existence that puts local communities, industries and wider civil society at the forefront of efforts. This requires a future where multifunctional ecological networks are equitable, effective and well connected and therefore resilient to climatic and broader environmental change.\ud I focus this thesis on the Republic of Kenya, a country that is going through a sustained period of economic growth and committed to protecting its wealth of biodiversity and to ecological restoration. First, I provide a novel method to map functional connectivity within Kenya's Central Highlands using expert opinion validated with empirical data. I use this to identify areas of restricted movement and investigate how they would change under stakeholder-defined future land-use options, finding where restoration would be most beneficial. Second, I investigate stakeholder preference for these options using structured decision-making and a multi criteria decision analysis, finding broad support for habitat conservation and restoration that changed little as I built more consensus into the process. Third, I use a novel application based on the principles of systematic conservation planning to integrate spatial priorities for biodiversity conservation and restoration, meeting representation targets across terrestrial Kenya. I measure the contribution of Kenya's different protected area types and use scenarios to show how meeting targets by restoring large patches of habitat, instead of conserving small fragments, produces more ecologically viable but more expensive ecological networks.\ud This thesis helps provide an understanding of the benefits of integrating national-level priorities for conservation and restoration. However, governments must develop context-specific approaches to target interventions that put local communities at the forefront of efforts, promoting multifunctional landscapes of human-wildlife co-existence and enabling environmental stewardship.

Nature conservation is a challenging profession. Professionals may face many obstacles before reaching their goals. Conservation work has been described as cognitively challenging, emotionally demanding, and physically straining and, at times, open to dangerous encounters caused by wildlife and people. Furthermore, the field of conservation is ever-changing, both by advances in its or associated disciplines and by rapid changes at a global political, social, and ecological level. Therefore, this doctoral research had as central research question: which role can capacity development have in optimising the work performance of conservation professionals? This study's results, arising from a mixed methods investigation, show that job resources, especially those provided by the organisation, are crucial for professional development and resilience building processes, and for optimising work performance. By thematically analysing the data of 22 interviews and 2 focus groups, organisational resources that were found to be linked to positive psychological states (e.g. experiences of energy, work engagement) were recognition and appreciation, and opportunities for growth and development. Results concerning work resources that were associated with positive psychological states were related to autonomy (i.e. freedom in work) and task significance (i.e. meaningful work). The strengths of these relationships were tested on a dataset obtained through 561 questionnaire respondents and by means of structural equation modelling. Quantitative data results confirmed the central role of job resources in reducing stress and burnout and increasing work engagement, which, in turn, positively influenced work performance. Overall, the results have highlighted the importance of considering both job demands and job resources when optimising work design and work environment for conservationists to maintain energy and perform their jobs well. Furthermore, individual processes of professional learning and resilience building can enhance thriving in the workplace in uncertain and rapidly changing environments.

Conservation area networks in most countries are fragmented and inadequate. To tackle this in England, government policies are encouraging stakeholders to create local‐level nature recovery networks. Here, we describe work led by a wildlife organization that used the systematic conservation planning approach to identify a nature recovery network for three English counties and select focal areas within it where they will focus their work. The network was based on identifying core zones to maintain current biodiversity and recovery zones for habitat restoration, meeting area‐based targets for 50 priority habitat, landscape, landcover, and ecosystem service types. It included the existing designated sites for conservation, which cover 6.05% of the study site, and identified an additional 11.6% of land as core zones and 18% as recovery zones, reflecting the organization's call for 30% of England to be conserved and connected by 2030. We found that systematic conservation planning worked well in this context, identifying a connected, adequate, representative, and efficient network and producing transparent and repeatable results. The analysis also highlighted the pressing need for government agencies to provide national‐level guidance and datasets for setting targets and including species data in spatial planning, creating a national framework to inform local action.

1. Participatory approaches are widely used by researchers to gather data and insight about how the environment is perceived, valued and used. The participatory activities may be creating information as part of curiosity-driven blue-skies research or to inform policy/practice decision-making. \ud 2. The quality and usability of data derived from participatory approaches are heavily influenced by how activities are conducted. We share a set of features and processes that underpin the generation of high-quality data, based on our collective experience of developing and undertaking participatory activities with an environmental and conservation focus.\ud 3. We propose four general features: (1) depth and breadth of engagement; (2) robustness of the approach; (3) allowing space for surprises; and (4) usability across contexts. We also provide a practical toolbox of processes, and associated facilitation techniques, which can be employed to maximise participant engagement and generate quality data.\ud 4. The features and processes are a practical guide for project leaders/teams to consider in the context of their work, rather than a set of inflexible rules. They should be relevant regardless of the participatory methods used, or the research, policy or practice setting being addressed.

Urbanization poses a serious threat to local biodiversity, yet towns and cities with abundant natural features may harbor important species populations and communities. While the contribution of urban greenspaces to conservation has been demonstrated by numerous studies within temperate regions, few consider the bird communities associated with different landcovers in Neotropical cities. To begin to fill this knowledge gap, we examined how the avifauna of a wetland city in northern Amazonia (Georgetown, Guyana) varied across six urban landcover types (coastal bluespace; urban bluespace; managed greenspace; unmanaged greenspace; dense urban; sparse urban). We measured detections, species richness and a series of ground cover variables that characterized the heterogeneity of each landcover, at 114 locations across the city. We recorded >10% (98) of Guyana’s bird species in Georgetown, including taxa of conservation interest. Avian detections, richness, and community composition differed with landcover type. Indicator species analysis identified 29 species from across dietary guilds, which could be driving community composition. Comparing landcovers, species richness was highest in managed greenspaces and lowest in dense urban areas. The canal network had comparable levels of species richness to greenspaces. The waterways are likely to play a key role in enhancing habitat connectivity as they traverse densely urbanized areas. Both species and landcover information should be integrated into urban land-use planning in the rapidly urbanizing Neotropics to maximize the conservation value of cities. This is imperative in the tropics, where anthropogenic pressures on species are growing significantly, and action needs to be taken to prevent biodiversity collapse.

This is a correction to: Journal of Heredity, Volume 112, Issue 7, October 2021, Pages 569–574, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esab052\ud \ud In the originally published version of this article there were errors within an author’s affiliations. The author names for Conservation Genetics, Beckman Center for Conservation Research should read: “Ryder, Thomas, Judson, Sidak-Loftis, Steiner, and Chemnick” instead of (Ryder, Thomas, Judson, Romanov, Sidak-Loftis, Steiner, and Chemnick”. The author names for San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance should read: “Mace, Romanov” instead of “Mace”. These errors have now been corrected online.

Natural history documentary films can be a powerful tool for wildlife conservation, providing an accessible means to increase public knowledge of the natural world. There has been an increasing focus in documentary films on the threats to biodiversity in recent years that has positively aided conservation efforts. However, potential ethical and welfare implications of natural history film making are often overlooked. Here, we consider the design and impact of the narratives used and the filming methods employed in natural history film making and their potential implications for conservation. Although these programmes are often lauded for their cinematography, filming techniques and practices should satisfy high ethical standards and should be evaluated to assess disturbance caused to wildlife and any associated negative behavioural and physiological impacts. This evaluation should include the direct impact of the filming, as well as considering the risk of viewers replicating human-wildlife encounters they see on film. Trends towards the use of highly dramatized storytelling, anthropomorphism and the inclusion of inaccurate information should also be addressed. Although some production companies have filming guidelines in place, this is not standard industry practice. Natural history films are an important means of educating and enthusing people about nature and its conservation; however, it is vital that films are made responsibly. To facilitate this discussion, we propose recommendations, including standardised industry-wide guidelines, codes of conduct and independent ethical reviews, for natural history film makers to mitigate and avoid negative impacts.

How will organisms cope when forced into warmer-than-preferred thermal environments? This is a key question facing our ability to monitor and manage biota as average annual temperatures increase, and is of particular concern for range-limited terrestrial species unable to track their preferred climatic envelope. Being ectothermic, desiccation prone, and often spatially restricted, island-inhabiting tropical amphibians exemplify this scenario. Pre-Anthropocene case studies of how insular amphibian populations responded to the enforced occupation of warmer-than-ancestral habitats may add a valuable, but currently lacking, perspective. We studied a population of frogs from the Seychelles endemic family Sooglossidae which, due to historic sea-level rise, have been forced to occupy a significantly warmer island (Praslin) than their ancestors and close living relatives. Evidence from thermal activity patterns, bioacoustics, body size distributions, and ancestral state estimations suggest that this population shifted its thermal niche in response to restricted opportunities for elevational dispersal. Relative to conspecifics, Praslin sooglossids also have divergent nuclear genotypes and call characters, a finding consistent with adaptation causing speciation in a novel thermal environment. Using an evolutionary perspective, our study reveals that some tropical amphibians have survived episodes of historic warming without the aid of dispersal and therefore may have the capacity to adapt to the currently warming climate. However, two otherwise co-distributed sooglossid species are absent from Praslin, and the deep evolutionary divergence between the frogs on Praslin and their closest extant relatives (~8 million years) may have allowed for gradual thermal adaptation and speciation. Thus, local extinction is still a likely outcome for tropical frogs experiencing warming climates in the absence of dispersal corridors to thermal refugia.

In recent years, studies have been linking climate warming with a decrease in body size across many aquatic and terrestrial taxa including reptiles. The impact that fluctuations in temperature are having on reptile populations is widely recognised, yet surprisingly little is understood about the apparent decrease in reptile body size in contemporary times. In the United Kingdom (UK), grass snakes (Natrix helvetica) and adders (Vipera berus) are not only in decline, but there is some evidence that body lengths appear to be decreasing too. Whether the 'shrinkage' phenomenon is real or is a result of measurer error or collection bias, remains a controversial topic among herpetologists. Comparative analyses using historic data from preserved specimens and contemporary measurements from field caught snakes found that N. helvetica were smaller on average by 14.1%, and V. berus by 11.1% than historic counterparts collected between the late 1800s to 1950 in the UK. It was important to establish whether these findings represented a true reflection of trends over time or whether they had been influenced by collection, sampling and / or measurer bias. Visual surveys of model snakes placed in reptile habitat revealed that more larger models were detected than smaller models, and that an experienced observer found more models than two groups (n=9 and n=10) of inexperienced observers. This supports the finding that detectability and collection is biased by snake size. Measuring snakes is notoriously difficult as evidenced by the considerable amount of literature on the topic. Further experiments were conducted to test the biases associated with multiple measurers, multiple measuring methods and repeatability, accuracy, and precision. There was no difference in measurements when they were made by a traditional method (squash box and string) or an image analysis program (Image J). However, experienced measurers varied in how they reported the size measurements of the same snakes using measuring software. Moreover, the position of the snake in the image influenced size measurements highly significantly. Caution must be taken if measurements are obtained using different methods by different measurers or combining data from live and preserved specimens. It is clear, however, that the smaller body size of contemporary N. helvetica and V. berus and the relation to potential environmental change factors are worthy of further investigation.

Using SNP analysis, genomic variation of the NCAPG-LCORL locus in chickens of 49 gene pool breeds and crossbreds from the Genetic Collection of Rare and Endangered Chicken Breeds was analyzed. Genotyping was performed using an Illumina Chicken 60K SNP iSelect BeadChip. As a result of SNP scanning, five significant SNPs were identified in the NCAPG-LCORL region in all breeds and crossbreds of the analyzed groups of chickens for GGA4. Cluster analysis of admixture models revealed a subdivision of individuals according to their origin at K = 5. Chickens of the egg and meat types formed two separate clusters, which is consistent with the results of genotype frequencies. When analyzing genetic differentiation between groups of chickens with different utility types on the basis of pairwise FST values, significant differences (p < 0.05) were found for the group of egg-type chickens in comparison with meat-type (0.330), dual purpose (meat-egg, 0.178), game (0.225 ) and dual purpose (egg-meat, 0.237) chickens, as well as for meat-type relative to fancy chickens (0.153). The results showed that the compared groups differ genetically from each other, which is confirmed by the data on genotype frequencies. The population specificity of the linkage disequilibrium structure at the NCAPG-LCORL locus was revealed for 11 chicken breeds. \ud \ud В ходе исследования с помощью анализа однонуклеотидного полиморфизма (SNP) была проанализирована геномная изменчивость локуса NCAPG-LCORL у кур 49 генофондных пород и гибридных форм из «Генетической коллекции редких и исчезающих пород кур». Генотипирование проводили с помощью чипа Illumina Chicken 60K SNP iSelect BeadChip. В результате SNP-сканирования у всех пород и гибридов анализируемых групп кур на GGA4 в регионе, включающем NCAPG-LCORL, и в области рядом с этим регионом определено пять значимых SNPs, которые могут быть кандидатами для селекции с помощью маркеров (MAS). Кластерный анализ адмикс-моделей обнаружил разделение особей соответственно их происхождению при К=5. Куры яичного и мясного направления продуктивности сформировали два обособленных кластера, что согласуется с результатами частот генотипов. При анализе генетической дифференциации между группами кур различного направления продуктивности на основе попарных FST-значений отмечены достоверные различия (p < 0,05) для группы кур яичного направления продуктивности в сравнении с мясными (0,330), мясо-яичными (0,178), бойцовыми (0,225) и яично-мясными (0,237), а также для кур мясного направления продуктивности относительно декоративных (0,153). Результаты показали, что сравниваемые группы отличаются генетически друг от друга, что подтверждается данными о частотах генотипов. Выявлена популяционная специфичность структуры неравновесия по сцеплению (LD) по локусу NCAPG-LCORL для 11 пород кур.

Along with the genetic characteristics of various poultry breeds, it is required to pay sufficient attention to the study of their phenotypic traits. We analyzed in a comparative aspect the phenotypic diversity of 39 chicken breeds and populations that make up a significant portion of the world gene pool. Breed grouping patterns found within the traditional model of their classification require further analysis using more sophisticated mathematical approaches. \ud \ud Наряду с генетической характеристикой различных пород птиц, требуется уделять достаточное внимание изучению их фенотипических признаков. Нами проанализировано в сравнительном аспекте фенотипическое разнообразие 39 куриных пород и популяций, составляющих значительную часть мирового генофонда. Паттерны группирования пород, обнаруженные в рамках традиционной модели их классификации, требуют дальнейшего анализа с использованием более сложных математических подходов.

To adjust breeding programs for local, commercial, and fancy breeds, and to implement molecular (marker-assisted) breeding, a proper comprehension of phenotypic and genotypic variation is a sine qua non for breeding progress in animal production. Here, we investigated an evolutionary subdivision of domestic chickens based on their phenotypic and genotypic variability using a wide sample of 49 different breeds/populations. These represent a significant proportion of the global chicken gene pool and all major purposes of breed use (according to their traditional classification model), with many of them being characterized by a synthetic genetic structure and notable admixture. We assessed their phenotypic variability in terms of body weight, body measurements, and egg production. From this, we proposed a phenotypic clustering model (PCM) including six evolutionary lineages of breed formation: egg-type, meat-type, dual purpose (egg-meat and meat-egg), game, fancy, and Bantam. Estimation of genotypic variability was carried out using the analysis of five SNPs, i.e., at the level of genomic variation at the NCAPG-LCORL locus. Based on these data, two generally similar genotypic clustering models (GCM1 and GCM2) were inferred that also had several overlaps with PCM. Further research for SNPs associated with economically important traits can be instrumental in marker-assisted breeding programs.

The Wallacea biogeographic region of Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Lesser Sunda is globally renowned for exceptional endemism, but is currently emerging as a development frontier in Indonesia. We assessed patterns and drivers of forest loss and fragmentation across the region, and used dynamic deforestation models to project future deforestation to 2053. Up to 10 231 km2 was deforested between 2000 and 2018, and a further 49 570 km2 is expected to be lost by 2053, with annual deforestation rates ranging between 0.09% and 2.17% in different sub-regions (average: 1.23%). Key biodiversity areas (priority sites for endemic and threatened biodiversity) are particularly vulnerable to deforestation if they are small, coastal and unprotected. Sub-regional variation in deforestation patterns and drivers must be acknowledged if conservation interventions are to be targeted and effective. We provide a valuable baseline from which to monitor Wallacea’s new development course, as Indonesia undergoes profound policy changes that will provide both challenges and opportunities for environmental governance and conservation.

Simple Summary: The search for genomic regions of putative selective signaling is instrumental in obtaining information about selection history in various species and populations. Domestic animals are subject to long-term artificial selection that leaves certain footprints in their genomes one can explore using genome-wide SNP screen. We examined here genomes of two contrasting chicken breeds, the native egg-type Russian White and meat-type White Cornish. Using three statistics, we identified genomic regions under putative selection, both breed-specific and shared between two breeds, that harbor key candidate genes for economically important traits. Our findings will be useful in further understanding selection history and genomic diversity in domestic chickens that would be pivotal in their productive breeding.\ud Abstract: Comparison of genomic footprints in chicken breeds with different selection history is a powerful tool in elucidating genomic regions that have been targeted by recent and more ancient selection. In the present work, we aimed at examining and comparing the trajectories of artificial selection in the genomes of the native egg-type Russian White (RW) and meat-type White Cornish (WC) breeds. Combining three different statistics (top 0.1% SNP by FST value at pairwise breed comparison, hapFLK analysis, and identification of ROH island shared by more than 50% of individuals), we detected 45 genomic regions under putative selection including 11 selective sweep regions, which were detected by at least two different methods. Four of such regions were breed-specific for each of RW breed (on GGA1, GGA5, GGA8, and GGA9) and WC breed (on GGA1, GGA5, GGA8, and GGA28), while three remaining regions on GGA2 (two sweeps) and GGA3 were common for both breeds. Most of identified genomic regions overlapped with known QTLs and/or candidate genes including those for body temperatures, egg productivity, and feed intake in RW chickens and those for growth, meat and carcass traits, and feed efficiency in WC chickens. These findings were concordant with the breed origin and history of their artificial selection. We determined a set of 188 prioritized candidate genes retrieved from the 11 overlapped regions of putative selection and reviewed their functions relative to phenotypic traits of interest in the two breeds. One of the RW-specific sweep regions harbored the known domestication gene, TSHR. Gene ontology and functional annotation analysis provided additional insight into a functional coherence of genes in the sweep regions. We also showed a greater candidate gene richness on microchromosomes relative to macrochromosomes in these genomic areas. Our results on the selection history of RW and WC chickens and their key candidate genes under selection serve as a profound information for further conservation of their genomic diversity and efficient breeding.

Regular contact with nature provides multiple health benefits for people, but biodiversity is declining fast in an urbanizing world. Biodiversity offsets are implemented to compensate for the negative residual impacts of economic development projects on biodiversity, but the impacts on people who stand to lose biodiversity from their local environment are rarely considered. Offsetting typically involves creating, restoring or protecting biodiversity values at a specified site that can be located some distance away from the development site. In this article, we explore whether any relocation of nature is occurring due to development and offsets in Western Australia (WA); a jurisdiction with one of the world's few spatially referenced and comprehensive public offset registers. We analyzed data from 158 projects within the WA Environmental Offsets Register. We compared the location of development sites within 50 km (the urban and peri urban zone) and 500 km (~one day's drive) of the central business district (CBD) of Perth with the associated offset sites. The development and offset process together can be considered to contribute to a loss of urban nature as the offset sites tended to be further away from urban areas than the associated development sites. The offset sites were also located in significantly lower population density areas. However, offsets increased the publicly accessible land area by changing land ownership and creating amenity benefit by improving nature values on public land. Nevertheless, it is unclear to what extent relocation of nature further from people is balanced by increased public access to nature. In order to maintain nature connectedness, ecosystem service delivery and environmental justice in cities, we argue offset policies should require spatial proximity between impact and offset sites.

Development corridors are extensive, often transnational and linear, geographical areas targeted for investment to help achieve sustainable development. They often comprise the creation of hard infrastructure (i.e., physical structures) and soft infrastructure (i.e., policies, plans, and programmes) involving a variety of actors. They are globally widespread, and likely to be a significant driver of habitat loss. Here, we describe the development corridors phenomenon from a biodiversity perspective and identify the elements of best practice in biodiversity impact mitigation. We use these to carry out a review of the peer reviewed literature on corridors to respond to three questions: (i) how impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services are assessed; (ii) what mitigation measures are discussed to manage these impacts; and (iii) to what extent do these measures approximate to best practice. We found that of 271 publications on development corridors across all continents (except for Antarctica) mentioning biodiversity or ecosystem services, only 100 (37%) assessed impacts on biodiversity and 7 (3%) on ecosystem services. Importantly, only half of these (52, 19% of the total 271 articles) discussed mitigation measures to manage these impacts. These measures focused on avoidance and minimisation and there was scant mention of restoration or ecological compensation illustrating a deficient application of the mitigation hierarchy. We conclude that the academic literature on corridors does not give sufficient consideration to comprehensive mitigation of biodiversity impacts. To change this, impact assessment research needs to acknowledge the complexity of such multi-project and multi-stakeholder initiatives, quantify biodiversity losses due to the full suite of their potential direct, indirect and cumulative impacts, and follow all the steps of the mitigation hierarchy impact framework. We suggest a series of research avenues and policy recommendations to improve impact assessments of corridors towards achieving better biodiversity outcomes.

Arboreal mammals form a diverse group providing ecologically important functions such as predation, pollination and seed dispersal. However, their cryptic and elusive nature, and the heights at which they live, makes studying these species challenging. Consequently, our knowledge of rainforest mammals is heavily biased towards terrestrial species, limiting our understanding of overall community structure and the possible impacts of human-induced disturbance. We undertook the first in-depth appraisal of an arboreal mammal community in Southeast Asia, using camera-traps set in unlogged and logged tropical rainforest in Sabah, Borneo. Using paired canopy and terrestrial camera-traps at 50 locations (25 in unlogged forest, 25 in logged), we assessed the effectiveness of camera-trapping at characterising the arboreal versus terrestrial community, and tested the influence of strata and forest type on community structure and composition. The paired design detected 55 mammal species across 15,817 camera-trap nights (CTNs), and additional canopy sampling in a subset of trees added a further two arboreal species to the inventory. In total, thirty species were detected exclusively by terrestrial camera-traps, eighteen exclusively by canopy camera-traps, and nine by units set at both heights, demonstrating significant differences between arboreal and terrestrial communities. This pattern was strongest in unlogged forest, reflecting greater structural diversity of this habitat, but held in logged forest as well. Species accumulation curves revealed that canopy camera-trapping significantly boosted species inventories compared to terrestrial-only sampling, and was particularly effective at detecting gliding mammals, rodents and primates. Canopy inventories took longer to reach an asymptote, suggesting that a greater sampling effort is required when deploying canopy camera-traps compared to those set on the ground. We demonstrate that arboreal mammals in Borneo’s rainforest form a diverse and distinct community, and can be sampled effectively using canopy camera-traps. However, the additional costs incurred by sampling in the canopy can be substantial. We provide recommendations to maximise sampling effectiveness, while bringing down costs, to help encourage further study into one of the last frontiers of tropical forest research.

Net outcome‐type biodiversity policies are proliferating globally as perceived mechanisms to reconcile economic development and conservation objectives. The UK government's Environment Bill will mandate that most new developments in England demonstrate that they deliver a biodiversity net gain (BNG) to receive planning permission, representing the most wide‐ranging net outcome type policy globally. However, as with many nascent net‐outcome policies, the likely outcomes of mandatory BNG have not been explored empirically. We assemble all BNG assessments (accounting for ∼6% of England's annual housebuilding and other infrastructure) submitted from January 2020 to February 2021 in six early‐adopter councils who are implementing mandatory no net loss or BNG requirements in advance of the national adoption of mandatory BNG, and analyze the aggregate habitat changes proposed. Our sample is associated with a 34% reduction in the area of nonurban habitats, generally compensated by commitments to deliver smaller areas of higher quality habitat years later in the development project cycle. Ninety‐five percent of biodiversity units delivered in our sample come from habitats within or directly‐adjacent to the development footprint managed by the developers. However, we find that these gains fall within a governance gap whereby they risk being unenforceable, a challenge that is shared with other net outcome type policies implemented internationally.

Questions persist as to the origin of the COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence is building that its origin as a zoonotic spillover occurred prior to the officially accepted timing of early December, 2019. Here we provide novel methods to date the origin of COVID-19 cases. We show that six countries had exceptionally early cases, unlikely to represent part of their main case series. The model suggests a likely timing of the first case of COVID-19 in China as November 17 (95% CI October 4). Origination dates are discussed for the first five countries outside China and each continent. Results infer that SARS-CoV-2 emerged in China in early October to mid-November, and by January, had spread globally. This suggests an earlier and more rapid timeline of spread. Our study provides new approaches for estimating dates of the arrival of infectious diseases based on small samples that can be applied to many epidemiological situations., Author summary While the COVID-19 pandemic continues, questions still persist as to its origins. Evidence is building that its origin as a zoonotic spillover occurred before the officially accepted timing of early December, 2019. We date the origin of COVID-19 cases from 203 countries and territories using a model from conservation science. We use a method that was originally developed to date the timing of extinction, and turn it to date the timing of origination using case dates rather than sighting events. Our results suggest that the virus emerged in China in early October to mid-November, 2019 (the most likely date being November 17), and by January, 2020, had spread globally. This suggests a much earlier and more rapid spread than is evident from confirmed cases. In addition, our study provides a new approach for estimating dates of the arrival of infectious diseases in new areas that can be applied to many different situations in the future.

Tidal marshes are one of the world’s most economically valuable habitats, yet they have experienced large and persistent declines globally. Increased knowledge of the ecosystem services delivered by marshes has become a powerful tool to conserve and restore them. But hesitancies regarding valuations and their application in decision making remain. Here we draw on the literature and collective experience of participants in the “Concepts and controversies in tidal Marsh ecology revisited” workshop, November 2nd and 3rd 2019, Mobile, Alabama, to provide a concise snapshot of the current field of salt marsh ecosystem service valuation, discuss the possible risks in salt marsh valuation, and the importance of stakeholder engagement to mitigate them. We provide examples of the application of valuation in conservation related decision making, illustrating the growing operationalization of ecosystem services in incentivizing salt marsh conservation and restoration.Ecosystem service quantification and valuation is already playing an important role in decision making by coastal risk managers, insurers, engineers and policy makers. While there are legitimate criticisms of valuation techniques and remaining uncertainties in ecosystem service delivery that arise both through natural variability across space and time and through differing and shifting cultural values, our perspective is that the rise of big data, the development of valuation techniques, a growing understanding and application of environmental justice practices, and increasing interdisciplinarity to tackle these complex issues, are paving the way for valuation to play a critical role in decision making around salt marshes.