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This systematic review compiles reports of clinical pythiosis in horses, mules and donkeys from 1960 to 2023 worldwide, focusing on Brazil. We searched databases and included 71 articles detailing clinical characteristics, geographic distribution, epidemiology, diagnostic methods, therapies, and outcomes. The results showed that publications on equine pythiosis have significantly increased since 2010. Brazil reported the highest incidence, comprising 55% of cases, predominantly in the southern, northeastern, and central-western regions during summer and autumn. Cutaneous pythiosis was the most prevalent form, generally presenting as single lesions in the appendicular region, and affected females more than males. Diagnosis typically involved histopathology, used alone or with other methods. Various treatments have been employed, with surgery, often combined with chemotherapy and immunotherapy, being the most common. Notably, 80.84% of treated animals recovered, highlighting the effectiveness of these therapies in enhancing survival rates. The limitations of the study included the lack of data in published case reports, which made it difficult to collect and calculate epidemiological data. Additionally, we recognize that pythiosis in Brazil is underreported, since this disease does not have mandatory notification and several cases are not registered and/or reported in the literature. Lastly, it is hypothesized that equid pythiosis may be more widespread than currently known, and its real occurrence in Brazil remains uncertain., (© 2024. The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Sociedade Brasileira de Microbiologia.)

Purpose: To describe the clinical features, microbiological profile, and outcome of a series of cases of Pythium keratitis treated with topical and oral linezolid and topical azithromycin eye drops., Methods: This was a retrospective interventional case series of microbiologically and/or histopathologically proven cases of Pythium keratitis seen between October 2016 and December 2019. All patients received a combination of topical linezolid and/or azithromycin eye drops with oral linezolid. Analysis of demographic data, predisposing risk factors, microbiological results, treatment regimen, visual acuity, surgical intervention, and final outcome was performed. A subgroup analysis of cases >6 mm in size was performed. Success was defined as complete resolution on medical management. Failure was defined as worsening of infection necessitating therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty or evisceration., Results: Of 21 cases, 2 were lost to follow up, 1 was diagnosed on histopathology, and 1 received only topical linezolid. Characteristic microbiological features were noted on 10% potassium hydroxide calcofluor white wet mount in 20/21 (95.23%) and Gram stain in 18/21 (85.71%). On triple drug regimen, 14/17 cases (82.35%) resolved. Average time to resolution was 87.64 ± 44.44 days. More than 60% infiltrates (13/21) were large, and 66.66% infiltrates resolved in 109.3 ± 57.06 days. Of the 5 failures, 4 needed therapeutic keratoplasty and 1 needed evisceration. All grafts failed., Conclusions: The dual topical drug regimen with oral linezolid has good cure rates (over 80%) for Pythium keratitis over prolonged duration. It is recommended to persevere with medical therapy even in large infiltrates because more than two thirds resolved., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2020 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Efficacy and safety of three antibiotics (Linezolid-LZ, 0.2%; Azithromycin-AZ, 1%; Tigecycline-TG, 1%) were determined in the treatment of Pythium insidiosum keratitis in rabbits. Infection of right eye of 38 rabbits was induced by standard intracorneal injection of P. insidiosum zoospores (left eye, intracorneal saline). Corneal infection developed in all right eyes. One hourly eye drops of one of the three antibiotics was instilled in both eyes (3 groups of 12 rabbits each) except in controls. Half of the rabbits in each group received intracorneal injection of the respective antibiotic after 4 days of starting eye drops. Clinical scoring of eyes was done over next 3 weeks. The reduction in scores post-treatment was significant for each drug (LZ: p < 0.025, AZ: p < 0.025, TG: p < 0.01). Scores with LZ (median change of 3) was significantly (p = 0.013) higher than TG (median change of 2) and comparable (p = 0.06) to AZ (median change of 3). Reduction in clinical scores in eyes receiving intracorneal antibiotics was not significantly different from the eyes that did not receive intracorneal antibiotics (p = 0.73). While no adverse effect of LZ was seen in the control corneas, 66-100% of rabbits showed reaction to AZ and TG. Histopathology showed severe inflammation in all infected corneas and intraocular extension in some of the rabbits with poor response. The success rate was noted to be 16.7%, 25% and 50% in AZ, TG and LZ respectively (p = 0.45). LZ demonstrated superior efficacy and safety and can be considered for trial in human disease., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Pythiosis is a deadly infectious disease caused by Pythium insidiosum. Reports of both human and animal pythiosis are on the rise worldwide. Prognosis of the pythiosis patients relies on early diagnosis and prompt treatment. There are needs for an immunodiagnostic test that can detect the disease in both humans and animals. This study aims at reporting an optimized protocol for the development of a protein A/G-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of anti-P. insidiosum antibody in multiple host species., Results: A total of 25 pythiosis and 50 control sera, obtained from humans, horses, dogs, cats, and cows, were recruited for the assay development. With a proper ELISA cutoff point, all pythiosis sera can ultimately be distinguished from the control sera. The successfully-developed protein A/G-based ELISA can detect the anti-P. insidiosum antibodies in serum samples of both humans and animals. It is a versatile, feasible-to-develop, and functional immunodiagnostic assay for pythiosis.

Purpose: To report clinical profile and compare management options for Pythium keratitis., Method: Retrospective interventional study of 46 patients diagnosed as Pythium keratitis by PCR DNA sequencing from January 2014 to July 2017. Interventions were categorised into medical management (MM) (topical azithromycin and linezolid with oral azithromycin at presentation), surgery (S) (therapeutic penetrating keratoplasty, TPK), surgical adjunct (SA) (cryotherapy±alcohol with TPK) and medical adjunct (MA) (MM after TPK)., Results: Primary treatment included MM (1 eye), SA (3 eyes) and S (42 eyes). Recurrence occurred in 27/43 eyes (MM+S group). Second surgery (S) was required in 11 eyes (TPK-2), with additional procedures (SA) in 10 eyes and evisceration in five eyes. 8/43 eyes received MA after TPK-1. One eye required TPK-3. Recurrence occured in all eyes that received MA (100%) and in 28 of 54 TPKs (51.8%) (TPK 1+2+3) in 42 eyes. Recurrence was noted in 1/14 (7.1%) that underwent SA., Conclusion: The currently available and recommended treatment for Pythium keratitis is surgical by means of a TPK and in worse cases evisceration. In our study, MM/MA measures showed no benefit with recurrence or worsening of infection requiring resurgery. Almost 50% of TPKs had a recurrence requiring resurgery. However, adjunctive procedures during TPK appear to have additional benefit with low risk of recurrence and could be included as routine care., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

We evaluated the efficacy of azithromycin (50 mg/kg, every 12 h [q12h] orally) and miltefosine (25 mg/kg, q24h orally) treatments in an experimental model of vascular/disseminated pythiosis in immunosuppressed mice. Azithromycin was the only treatment able to reduce mortality. The histopathological findings showed acute vascular inflammation, pathogen dissemination, necrotizing myositis, neuritis, and arteritis. The results suggest that azithromycin, but not miltefosine, may have clinical relevance in the treatment of vascular/disseminated pythiosis., (Copyright © 2018 American Society for Microbiology.)

Objectives: The oomycete Pythium insidiosum infects humans and animals worldwide, and causes the life-threatening condition, called pythosis. Most patients lose infected organs or die from the disease. Comparative genomic analyses of different P. insidiosum strains could provide new insights into its pathobiology, and can lead to discovery of an effective treatment method. Several draft genomes of P. insidiosum are publicly available: three from Asia (Thailand), and one each from North (the United States) and Central (Costa Rica) Americas. We report another draft genome of P. insidiosum isolated from South America (Brazil), to serve as a resource for comprehensive genomic studies., Data Description: In this study, we report genome sequence of the P. insidiosum strain CBS 101555, isolated from a horse with pythiosis in Brazil. One paired-end (180-bp insert) library of processed genomic DNA was prepared for Illumina HiSeq 2500-based sequencing. Assembly of raw reads provided genome size of 48.9 Mb, comprising 60,602 contigs. A total of 23,254 genes were predicted and classified into 18,305 homologous gene clusters. Compared with the reference genome (the P. insidiosum strain Pi-S), 1,475,337 sequence variants (SNPs and INDELs) were identified in the organism. The genome sequence data has been deposited in DDBJ under the accession numbers BCFP01000001-BCFP01060602.

The bioactivity spectrum of fungal endophytes isolated from Zingiber officinale was analyzed against clinical pathogens and against the phytopathogen Pythium myriotylum, which causes Pythium rot in ginger. One of the isolates GFM13 showed broad bioactivity against various pathogens tested including P. myriotylum. The spore suspension as well as the culture filtrate of the endophytic fungal isolate was found to effectively protect ginger rhizomes from Pythium rot. By molecular identification, the fungal endophyte was identified as Paraconiothyrium sp. The bioactive compound produced by the isolate was separated by bioactivity-guided fractionation and was identified by GC-MS as danthron, an anthraquinone derivative. PCR amplification showed the presence of non-reducing polyketide synthase gene (NR-PKS) in the endophyte GFM13, which is reported to be responsible for the synthesis of anthraquinones in fungi. This is the first report of danthron being produced as the biologically active component of Paraconiothyrium sp. Danthron is reported to have wide pharmaceutical and agronomic applications which include its use as a fungicide in agriculture. The broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of danthron and the endophytic origin of Paraconiothyrium sp. offer immense applications of the study.

Pythium insidiosum causes a life-threatening infectious disease, called pythiosis, in humans and animals worldwide. Diagnosis of pythiosis is difficult and often delayed. Surgical removal of infected tissue is the main treatment option. Disabilities and death are common outcomes for pythiosis patients. Reports of Py. insidiosum infections are rising. While it would be useful for clinical, epidemiological, and microbiological studies, information on genetic variation in Py. insidiosum strains is limited. This limitation is, at least in part, due to the cost and time-requirements of DNA sequencing procedures. rDNA-sequence-based phylogenetic analyses categorize Py. insidiosum into three groups, in relation to geographic distribution: Clade-I (American strains), Clade-II (American, Asian, and Australian strains), and Clade-III (Thai and American strains). In rDNA sequence analyses, we observed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) that were associated with the phylogenetic clades of Py. insidiosum. In this study, we aim to develop a multiplex PCR assay, targeting the identified SNPs, for rapid genotyping of Py. insidiosum. We also aim to assess diagnostic efficiency of the assay for identification of Py. insidiosum. Fifty-three isolates of Py. insidiosum from humans (n=35), animals (n=14), and the environment (n=4), and 22 negative-control fungi were recruited for assay evaluation. Based on the pattern of amplicons, the multiplex PCR correctly assigned phylogenetic clades in 98% of the Py. insidiosum isolates tested. The assay exhibited 100% sensitivity and specificity for identification of Py. insidiosum. The assay successfully identified and genotyped the first proven isolate of Py. insidiosum from an animal with pythiosis in Thailand. In conclusion, the multiplex PCR provided accurate, sensitive and specific results for identifying and genotyping Py. insidiosum. Thus, this multiplex-PCR assay could be a simple, rapid, and cost-effective alternative to DNA sequencing for the identification and genotyping of Py. insidiosum., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Pythiosis is a potentially fatal but non-contagious disease affecting humans and animals living in tropical and subtropical climates, but is also reasonably widespread in temperate climates, throughout the world. The most commonly reported affected animal species with pythiosis are equine and canine, with fewer cases in bovine and feline. Extracutaneous infections caused by Pythium insidiosum have been rarely described in the cat., Case Presentation: Sublingual pythiosis was diagnosed in a 2-year-old, male, Domestic Shorthair cat. The cat had a multilobulated, sublingual mass present for 3 months. Histopathological examination revealed severe multifocal coalescing eosinophilic granulomatous inflammation. Centers of the inflammation contained hyphae that were 3-7 μm-wide, non-parallel, uncommonly septate and rarely branching. The fungal-like organism was identified as P. insidiosum by polymerase chain reaction and subsequent amplicon sequencing., Conclusions: Only a few feline pythiosis cases have been reported and, when encountered, it usually causes granulomatous diseases of the skin or gastrointestinal tract. This case presents an unusual manifestation of feline pythiosis, representing the first involving the oral cavity in cats or dogs.

Purpose: To describe the previously unreported successful treatment of presumptive Pythium keratitis (PK) with medical therapy alone., Methods: A 42-year-old female homemaker presented to us with a 15-day history of pain and redness in the right eye after a trivial injury. Her vision was 20/80 at presentation. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy revealed a central, dense and dry-looking, grayish-white infiltrate reaching mid stroma. The infiltrate had feathery margins and was surrounded by multiple tentacle-like lesions and peripherally expanding pinhead-sized subepithelial lesions. The contralateral eye was essentially normal. Diagnostic corneal scraping on smears revealed broad, aseptate, hyaline filaments with ribbon-like folds; very characteristic of Pythium species. Confocal imaging revealed fungal filaments. Based on corroborative evidence, a diagnosis of presumptive PK was made. She was administered a combination therapy consisting of eye drop linezolid 0.2% 1 hourly, azithromycin 1% 2 hourly, atropine sulfate 1% thrice daily, and oral azithromycin 500 mg once daily for 3 days in a week., Results: After initial worsening in the form of stromal expansion, regression of pinhead-sized lesions was seen with onset of scarring by as early as day 4 of intense medical therapy. The tentacle-like lesions did not worsen. On day 8, significant resolution was noted with scarring, and by the end of 2 weeks, the entire stromal lesion had scarred and complete resolution of expanding tentacles was observed in 3 weeks., Conclusions: Presumptive Pythium keratitis of the patient completely resolved with antibacterial treatment alone. It is pertinent for ophthalmologists to be aware of this new treatment regimen.

BACKGROUND Pythium insidiosum keratitis is a rare but sight-threatening disease with a high morbidity rate. It can be misdiagnosed as fungal keratitis in clinic settings. We report a case of severe Pythium insidiosum keratitis in a Chinese child, treated with combined approaches. CASE REPORT A 7-year-old boy from Hainan province in the south of China developed a suppurative corneal ulcer after being in a forest. A mass of hyphae was detected by confocal imaging in vivo, fungal smear test, and histochemical examination. Treatment with Natamycin, fluconazole, and Voriconazole for 1 month was unsuccessful, and a penetrating keratoplasty with anterior vitrectomy was performed. The infection reappeared 1 day after surgery, immediately after which anterior chamber irrigation with 0.02% Fluconazole and amphotericin B solution was performed. Finally, the globe was saved and there was no further recurrent infection. A cultured mycelial organism, which was hard to identify by biomorphology, was confirmed by PCR to be Pythium insidiosum. The zoospores were observed in water environments. The imaging characteristics of P. insidiosum in confocal microscopy are described herein. CONCLUSIONS This is the first case of Pythium insidiosum keratitis reported in China. It can be misdiagnosed as fungal keratitis in the clinic. Improving the awareness of clinicians, promoting early diagnosis, and a multidisciplinary approach, especially early surgery, improve the prognosis., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: None declared

Aims: The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro susceptibility of Pythium insidiosum to combinations of the antifungal drugs terbinafine or itraconazole with Melaleuca alternifolia, Mentha piperita and Origanum vulgare essential oils (EOs)., Methods and Results: In vitro combinations of antifungal drugs with EOs were evaluated by checkerboard microdilution method against 20 Brazilian isolates of P. insidiosum. The tests were performed according to protocol M38-A2, and the interpretation of each combination result was based on the values of the fractional inhibitory concentration index. The combinations of itraconazole with EOs presented prominent synergistic effects against P. insidiosum isolates, and no antagonism was observed with these combinations. However, the combinations of terbinafine with EOs resulted in indifferent or antagonistic effects., Conclusions: The combination of plant-derived bioactive compounds with antifungal drugs may be an alternative therapy for the control of infections caused by P. insidiosum. Studies of new therapeutic protocols involving these proposed combinations are needed., Significance and Impact of the Study: The antimicrobial combinations using EOs with terbinafine or itraconazole can be an attractive therapeutic option for controlling P. insidiosum infections., (© 2016 The Society for Applied Microbiology.)

Objective: Vascular pythiosis, caused by Pythium insidiosum, is associated with a high mortality rate. We reviewed the outcomes and established the factors predicting prognosis of patients treated in our institution with surgery, antifungal therapy, or immunotherapy., Methods: We undertook a retrospective record review of patients with vascular pythiosis treated in Siriraj Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand, between January 2005 and January 2015. Patient characteristics, type of surgery, adjunctive antifungal treatment, adjunctive immunotherapy, and disease status of surgical arterial and surrounding soft tissue margins were recorded. We calculated the mortality rate and established factors predicting prognosis., Results: The records of 11 patients were reviewed. All patients had thalassemia. Nine patients (81.8%) had a history of contact with contaminated water. The clinical presentations were chronic ulcers (45.5%), toe gangrene (27.3%), pulsatile mass (27.3%), and acute limb ischemia (27.3%). Above-knee amputation was required in 10 patients (90.9%). The mortality rate was 36.4%. Independent variables between survivors and nonsurvivors were lack of an arterial disease-free surgical margin (P = .003), lack of a surrounding soft tissue disease-free surgical margin (P < .05), a suprainguinal lesion (P < .05) and duration of symptoms (P < .05). Adjuvant itraconazole, terbinafine, and Pythium vaccine have a role to play in patients with a disease-free arterial surgical margin but in whom infected surrounding soft tissue could not be completely excised., Conclusions: Achieving adequate disease-free surgical margins-especially the arterial margin-at amputation or débridement is the most important prognostic factor in patients with vascular pythiosis. Early detection combined with a multidisciplinary approach to treatment, including surgery, antifungal agents, and immunotherapy, allows the best possible outcome to be obtained., (Copyright © 2016 Society for Vascular Surgery. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Our study describes the clinical, epidemiologic, pathologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular aspects PCR of a case of cutaneous pythiosis in a donkey (Equus asinus) from Brazil. During a dry period, the animal grazed for 4 months around a pond where the vegetation remained green. Skin lesions were nodular, multifocal, and disseminated, mainly involving the legs, ventral chest, and mammary gland. On cut surface, there were multifocal to coalescent discrete yellow foci, and occasional small cavitations with a few kunkers. Ulcerative nodular pyogranulomatous and eosinophilic dermatitis with folliculitis and furunculosis were observed histologically. Hyphae were observed in sections stained with Gomori methenamine silver. Immunohistochemistry with Pythium insidiosum antibodies yielded strong immunostaining of hyphae. P. insidiosum DNA was extracted from tissues in paraffin blocks by amplification of a fragment of 105 bp, which targets the 5.8S ribosomal gene. After the diagnosis of pythiosis, the larger skin lesions were excised and treated as second intention healing wounds, which were completely healed 30 days after resection. Small skin lesions regressed spontaneously in ~60 days. The granulomatous inflammation and outcome of the disease in this donkey were similar to cases of pythiosis in cattle., (© 2016 The Author(s).)

Oomycetes are fungus-like in appearance, but form a distinct clade within the eukaryotes. While most pathogenic oomycetes infect plants, the understudied oomycete Pythium insidiosum infects humans and animals, and causes a life-threatening infectious disease, called pythiosis. Phylogenetic analyses divide P. insidiosum into 3 groups, according to geographic origins: Clade-I (Americas), Clade-II (Asia and Australia), and Clade-III (Thailand). Surgical removal of the infected organ is the inevitable treatment for patients with pythiosis, but it is often too late or unsuccessful, and many patients die from advanced infection. Understanding P. insidiosum's basic biology could lead to improved infection control. Elicitins, a unique group of proteins found only in oomycetes, are involved in sterol acquisition and stimulation of host responses. Recently, we identified glycosylated and non-glycosylated forms of the elicitin-like protein, ELI025, which is secreted by P. insidiosum, and detected during P. insidiosum infection. In this study, we investigated geographic variation of ELI025 in 24 P. insidiosum strains isolated from humans, animals, and the environment. Genotypes of ELI025, based on 2 sets of PCR primers, correlated well with rDNA-based phylogenetic grouping. Unlike strains in Clade-I and -II, Clade-III strains secreted no glycosylated ELI025. Sera from 17 pythiosis patients yielded a broad range of antibody responses against ELI025, and ∼30% lacked reactivity against the protein. Selective production or secretion of glycosylated ELI025 by different P. insidiosum strains might contribute to the variable host antibody responses. In conclusion, ELI025 was secreted by all P. insidiosum strains isolated from different hosts and geographic origins, but the protein had different biochemical, and immunological characteristics. These finding contribute to the better understanding of the biology and evolution of P. insidiosum, and could lead to appropriate clinical application of the ELI025 protein for diagnosis or treatment of pythiosis., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To report the molecular and microbiological diagnosis and clinical profile of 13 patients with Pythium insidiosum keratitis., Methods: Phase 1 of the study consisted of DNA sequencing of the ITS region of the rDNA of 162 stocked morphologically unidentified nonconsecutive fungal isolates from corneal scraping of patients with keratitis (2010-2012). Blast and phylogenetic analyses of the sequences showed 9 to be P. insidiosum. A retrospective review of archived photographs of colony and direct microscopy of corneal scrapings and clinical records of the cases were performed. Phase 2 began in 2014, in which a simple method of zoospore formation was used for fungal colonies resembling those of P. insidiosum followed by DNA sequencing., Results: The prevalence of P. insidiosum among unidentified fungal isolates from keratitis was 9/162 (5.5%) in phase 1. In phase 2, 4/102 cases (3.9%) of fungal keratitis were identified as P. insidiosum (January-February, 2014). Phylogenetic analysis of all 13 fungal isolates confirmed the identification of P. insidiosum. Corneal infiltrates exhibited hyphate edges, tentacle-like extensions, and dot-like infiltrates surrounding the main infiltrate. Response to topical 5% natamycin eye drops with or without oral antifungals was poor (penetrating keratoplasty: 9 and evisceration: 2) with a mean follow-up period of 82 days., Conclusions: P. insidiosum keratitis needs to be considered in the differential diagnosis of severe fungal keratitis. It can be identified using the zoospore formation method and confirmed by ITS DNA sequencing. Lack of response to currently used antifungal drugs calls for evaluation of newer drugs for medical therapy and consideration for early penetrating keratoplasty.

Pythiosis is reported for the first time in a goat. The affected goat had daily access to an aquatic environment and had developed an ulcerative lesion on the skin of the left hindlimb. Microscopically, there were dermal pyogranulomas with 'negatively stained' hyphae, which were identified immunohistochemically as Pythium insidiosum., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A 4-year-old male neutered Labrador Retriever with severe gastrointestinal signs, but no respiratory signs, was diagnosed with multifocal pyogranulomatous gastritis, enteritis, and lymphadenitis with intralesional hyphae and multifocal pyogranulomatous pneumonia with intralesional yeast. Based on cytologic evaluation, histologic examination with special stains, and immunohistochemical analysis of tissues collected antemortem or at necropsy, dual infections with Pythium insidiosum and Blastomyces dermatitidis were detected and are reported for the first time., (© 2012 American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology.)

Pythium insidiosum is an emerging human pathogen classified among brown algae and diatoms that can cause significant morbidity and mortality in otherwise healthy individuals. Here we describe a pediatric patient with pythiosis acquired in the southern United States, diagnosed by molecular screening and DNA sequencing of internal transcribed spacer region 1.

Oomycetes are unique eukaryotic microorganisms that share a mycelial morphology with fungi. Many oomycetes are pathogenic to plants, and a more limited number are pathogenic to animals. Pythium insidiosum is the only oomycete that is capable of infecting both humans and animals, and causes a life-threatening infectious disease, called "pythiosis". In the majority of pythiosis patients life-long handicaps result from the inevitable radical excision of infected organs, and many die from advanced infection. Better understanding P. insidiosum pathogenesis at molecular levels could lead to new forms of treatment. Genetic and genomic information is lacking for P. insidiosum, so we have undertaken an expressed sequence tag (EST) study, and report on the first dataset of 486 ESTs, assembled into 217 unigenes. Of these, 144 had significant sequence similarity with known genes, including 47 with ribosomal protein homology. Potential virulence factors included genes involved in antioxidation, thermal adaptation, immunomodulation, and iron and sterol binding. Effectors resembling pathogenicity factors of plant-pathogenic oomycetes were also discovered, such as, a CBEL-like protein (possible involvement in host cell adhesion and hemagglutination), a putative RXLR effector (possibly involved in host cell modulation) and elicitin-like (ELL) proteins. Phylogenetic analysis mapped P. insidiosum ELLs to several novel clades of oomycete elicitins (ELIs), and homology modeling predicted that P. insidiosum ELLs should bind sterols. Most of the P. insidiosum ESTs showed homology to sequences in the genome or EST databases of other oomycetes, but one putative gene, with unknown function, was found to be unique to P. insidiosum. The EST dataset reported here represents the first steps in identifying genes of P. insidiosum and beginning transcriptome analysis. This genetic information will facilitate understanding of pathogenic mechanisms of this devastating pathogen., (Copyright © 2011 The British Mycological Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Human pythiosis is an emerging and life-threatening infectious disease caused by Pythium insidiosum. It occurs primarily in tropical, subtropical and temperate areas of the world, including Thailand. The aim of this report is to present the first pediatric case of typical vascular pythiosis., Case Presentation: A 10-year-old boy with underlying β-thalassemia presented with gangrenous ulcers and claudication of the right leg which were unresponsive to antibiotic therapy for 6 weeks. Computerized tomography angiography indicated chronic arterial occlusion involving the right distal external iliac artery and its branches. High-above-knee amputation was urgently done to remove infected arteries and tissues, and to stop disease progression. Antibody to P. insidiosum was detected in a serum sample by the immunoblot and the immunochromatography tests. Fungal culture followed by nucleic sequence analysis was positive for P. insidiosum in the resected iliac arterial tissue. Immunotherapeutic vaccine and antifungal agents were administered. The patient remained well and was discharged after 2 months hospitalization without recurrence of the disease. At the time of this communication he has been symptom-free for 2 years., Conclusions: The child presented with the classical manifestations of vascular pythiosis as seen in adult cases. However, because pediatricians were unfamiliar with the disease, diagnosis and surgical treatment were delayed. Both early diagnosis and appropriate surgical and medical treatments are crucial for good prognosis.