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Abstract Wound is defined as the damage to biological tissues including skin, mucous membranes and organ tissues. The acute wound heals in less than 4 weeks without complications, while a chronic wound takes longer than 6 weeks to heal. Wound healing occurs in 4 phases, namely, coagulation, inflammatory, proliferative and remodeling phases. Triclosan and benzalkonium chloride are commonly used as skin disinfectants in wound healing. However, they cause allergic contact dermatitis and antibiotic resistance. Medicinal plants are widely studied due to the limited availability of wound healing agents. The present review included six commonly available medicinal plants in Malaysia such as Aloe barbadensis Miller, Carica papaya Linn., Centella asiatica Linn., Cymbopogon nardus Linn., Ficus benghalensis Linn. and Hibiscus rosa sinensis Linn. Various search engines and databases were used to obtain the scientific findings, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed Central and Research Gate. The review discussed the possible mechanism of action of medicinal plants and their active constituents in the wound healing process. In addition, their application in nanotechnology and wound dressings was also discussed in detail.

Abstract Background Scientific literature has demonstrated the association of free radicals in the aetiology of various chronic diseases. Hence, the identification of potent antioxidants remains a useful task. The combination of multiple herbs in polyherbal formulations (PHF) is often associated with greater therapeutic efficacy due to synergistic interactions. However, antagonism can occur in natural product mixtures and the resultant antioxidant potential might not always be the additive value of the antioxidant properties of each component. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the phytochemicals, antioxidative potential and interaction among the herbs in TC-16, a new PHF comprising Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale var. Bentong, Piper nigrum L., Citrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands and Apis dorsata honey. Methods TC-16 was screened for phytochemicals. Phenolic and flavonoid contents of TC-16 and its individual ingredients were determined, followed by assessment of antioxidant properties using in vitro assays including 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and β-carotene bleaching (BCB) assays. Interactions among the herbs were also investigated by calculating the difference in antioxidant activity and combination index. Results Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins and glycosides were present in TC-16. TC-16 possessed the highest phenolic (46.14 ± 1.40 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (132.69 ± 1.43 mg CE/g) contents following C. longa. Synergistic antioxidant activity among the herbs was evident in ORAC and BCB assays which uses mainly hydrogen atom transfer-based antioxidant mechanisms. Conclusions TC-16 demonstrated roles in combating free radicals. In a PHF, synergistic interaction among the herbs is observed in some but not all mechanisms. Mechanisms showing synergistic interactions should be highlighted to maximise the beneficial property of the PHF.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes no longer respond to any pharmacological agents, rendering the conventional antimicrobial agents ineffective. AMR has been classified as one of the top 10 life-threatening global health problems needed multilevel attention and global cooperation to attain the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) according to the World Health Organization (WHO), making the discovery of a new and effective antimicrobial agent a priority. The recommended treatments for drug-resistant microbes are available but limited. Furthermore, the transformation of microbes over time increases the risk of developing drug resistance. Hence, plant metabolites such as terpenes, phenolic compounds and alkaloids are widely studied due to their antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic effects. Plant-derived antimicrobials are preferred due to their desirable efficacy and safety profile. Plant metabolites work by targeting microbial cell membranes, interfering with the synthesis of microbial DNA/RNA/enzymes and disrupting quorum sensing and efflux pump expression. They also work synergistically with conventional antibiotics to enhance antimicrobial effects. Accordingly, this review aims to identify currently available pharmacological therapies against microbes and AMR, as well as to discuss the importance of plant and secondary metabolites as a possible solution for AMR together with their mechanisms of action. All the information was obtained from government databases, WHO websites, PubMed, Springer, Google Scholar and Science Direct. Based on the information obtained, AMR is regarded as a significant warning to global healthcare. Plant derivatives such as secondary metabolites may be considered as potential therapeutic targets to mitigate the non-ending AMR.

Aspergillus species consists of a group of opportunistic fungi that is virulent when the immunity of the host is compromised. Among the various species, Aspergillus fumigatus is the most prevalent species. However, the prevalence of fungal infections caused by non-fumigatus Aspergillus has been increasing. Polyenes, echinocandins and azoles are the three main classes of antifungal agents being used for the treatment of aspergillosis. Nevertheless, the incidence of resistance towards these three classes has been rising over the years among several Aspergillus spp. The side effects associated with these conventional antifungal agents have also limited their usage. This urges the need for the discovery of a safe and effective antifungal agent, which presents a major challenge in medicine today. Plants present a rich source of bioactive molecules which have been proven effective against a wide range of infections and conditions. Therefore, this present review intends to examine the current literature available regarding the efficacy and mechanism of action of plant extracts and their compounds against Aspergillus spp. In addition, novel drug delivery systems of plant extracts against Aspergillus spp. were also included in this review.

The widely reported adverse effects of synthetic ingredients encourage the development of green cosmeceuticals to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3. The waste product of mangosteen (mangosteen peel) was utilized in the formulation to reduce waste production corresponding to SDG 12, in addition to its anti-aging and pigmentation control effects. This study aimed to formulate and evaluate novel herbal face creams containing standardized mangosteen peel extract. The mangosteen creams were formulated using natural ingredients and were evaluated for their organoleptic characteristics, rheology, spreadability and pH. Furthermore, an accelerated stability study, freeze–thaw stability study and centrifugation test were conducted. In addition, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assays were conducted to assess its antioxidant effects, whereas tyrosinase inhibitory assay was conducted to determine its anti-tyrosinase activity. The formulated creams appeared light yellowish-brown and homogenous without phase separation. The creams displayed shear-thinning behavior and optimal pH which was ideal for topical application. The creams were stable after being subjected to various stability tests and were shown to have antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activity. In conclusion, the development of mangosteen-based green cosmeceutical face cream is in line with SDG 3 and 12. It is expected to be used as a safe and effective alternative to synthetic products.

Facial mask plays an important role in skincare routines due to its immediate effect on the skin and ease of use. Consumer awareness of the adverse effects of synthetic ingredients encourages the development of green cosmetics to meet consumer demand and achieve sustainability. Hence, facial masks without synthetic ingredients would gain more public preference. This study aimed to formulate and evaluate a new polyherbal powdered facial mask for anti-ageing effects. The polyherbal powdered facial mask was formulated using tomato powder, turmeric powder, and chickpea flour. The polyherbal powdered facial mask and the marketed mask were evaluated for organoleptic characteristics, particle size, pH, spreadability, flowability, and loss on drying. Heavy metal tests and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay were also conducted for the polyherbal mask. The polyherbal mask was cosmetically acceptable and skinfriendly due to its optimal pH (5.31 ± 0.13), spreadability (100 g: 3.93 ± 0.05 cm; 200 g: 4.37 ± 0.17 cm), flowability (angle of repose: 35.47 ± 1.90°; bulk density: 0.36 ± 0.03 g/cm3; Hausner's ratio: 1.00 ± 0.0001; Carr's index: 0.25 ± 0.01%) and water content (LOD: 0.90 ± 0.08%). Heavy metal tests demonstrated that the polyherbal mask was free from cadmium and lead. In addition, turmeric contributes to the antioxidant activity of the polyherbal mask. In conclusion, the polyherbal powdered facial mask is a safe and effective alternative to the marketed mask for antiageing effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widely reported adverse effects of synthetic ingredients encourage the development of green cosmeceuticals to achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3. The waste product of mangosteen (mangosteen peel) was utilized in the formulation to reduce waste production corresponding to SDG 12, in addition to its anti-aging and pigmentation control effects. This study aimed to formulate and evaluate novel herbal face creams containing standardized mangosteen peel extract. The mangosteen creams were formulated using natural ingredients and were evaluated for their organoleptic characteristics, rheology, spreadability and pH. Furthermore, an accelerated stability study, freeze-thaw stability study and centrifugation test were conducted. In addition, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assays were conducted to assess its antioxidant effects, whereas tyrosinase inhibitory assay was conducted to determine its anti-tyrosinase activity. The formulated creams appeared light yellowish-brown and homogenous without phase separation. The creams displayed shear-thinning behavior and optimal pH which was ideal for topical application. The creams were stable after being subjected to various stability tests and were shown to have antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activity. In conclusion, the development of mangosteen-based green cosmeceutical face cream is in line with SDG 3 and 12. It is expected to be used as a safe and effective alternative to synthetic products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin is the largest organ of the human body which has been outlined to have more than 20 vital physiological functions. Skin acts as a protective barrier against pressure and trauma. It also acts as a barrier for external environments including pollution, sunlight, radiation, harmful microbes, and chemical. Skincare products are medicinal formulations prepared to be used on external parts of the human body to produce therapeutic topical effects and shield the deteriorated skin. Herbal skincare creams have been widely used by many generations for centuries for the purpose of skincare. Nowadays, these herbal skincare creams are becoming more popular and prevalent among people due to their mindset and concerns about synthetic or chemical substances that may lead to adverse effects. The main factors that lead to the usage of herbal ingredients in skincare creams are their outstanding antioxidant, antimicrobial, and tyrosinase inhibition properties. The studies on the potential pharmacologically active herbs for skincare creams allow us to understand their importance. In this review, several examples of herbs being used and still undergoing clinical studies were identified according to different skin conditions includes hyperpigmentation, skin aging, and acne. This detailed work might contribute to accomplishing consumer demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green cosmeceuticals are sustainable skincare products formulated using only biodegradable, naturally derived ingredients aiming to improve various skin conditions while concomitantly preserving the environment. Its rising demand is due to its generally better toxicological profiles with appreciable pharmacological effects as compared to synthetic-based cosmeceuticals with frequently reported adverse reactions. The locular gel extracted from the locular cavities of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an excellent example of a plant-derived ingredient with cosmeceuticals benefits. The partially matured green tomatoes consist of locular gel (GTLG) with numerous bioactive compounds beneficial for skin health may be a potential alternative for chemical active ingredient in the formulation of green cosmeceuticals. This study was undertaken to evaluate the antioxidant and antimicrobial profiles of GTLG and to formulate a green cosmeceutical herbal facial gelcream with claims of being colour-free, sulfide-free, alcohol-free, paraben-free and SLS-free utilizing GTLG as the active ingredient. The extracted GTLG was subjected to in vitro antioxidant assays including 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), antibacterial and antifungal assays. The formulated GTLG-containing facial gel-cream was evaluated for its physicochemical properties (e.g. organoleptic characteristics, pH, spreadability, washability, viscosity) and its stability under freeze-thaw and accelerated conditions. GTLG was found to possess moderate antioxidant capacities at IC50 of 0.6405 ± 0.029mg/mL and 0.061 ± 0.013mg/mL for DPPH and ABTS assay respectively as compared to the positive control, Trolox (IC50(DPPH) = 5.237 ± 0.938µg/mL; IC50(ABTS) = 5.409 ± 0.612µg/mL). Besides, GTLG showed promising antibacterial and antifungal properties against Staphylococcus aureus and Malassezia furfur in agar well diffusion assay with zones of inhibition of 10.33±0.58mm and 16.00mm respectively. The formulation had vanishing cream properties with cosmetically appealing appearance, smooth texture, homogenous without any signs of phase separation, skinfriendly pH, and good spreadability. It possessed non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic behaviour that facilitates topical application. It was stable throughout the freeze-thaw test and under accelerated stability conditions (40 ± 2°C/75 ± 5% RH). GTLG-containing green cosmeceutical facial gel-cream with antioxidant and antimicrobial potential was successfully developed in line with SDG 3 and 12. Further pharmacological and clinical studies would be conducted to warrant them as clinically tested evidence-based formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free radicals have been associated with the aetiology of many chronic illnesses. Thus, there is an increased need to identify potent antioxidants which can significantly destroy the free radicals. Combination of multiple herbs in polyherbal formulations (PHF) is often associated with greater therapeutic efficacy due to synergism. However, antagonism can occur in natural product mixtures and the resultant antioxidant potential might not always be the additive value of antioxidant properties of each component. The study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant capacity and interaction among the herbs in TC-16, a new PHF comprising Curcuma longa L., Zingiber officinale var. Bentong, Piper nigrum L., Citrofortunella microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands and Apis dorsata honey. TC-16 was tested for the presence of phytochemicals followed by the determination of phenolic and flavonoid contents. The antioxidant properties of TC-16 and its ingredients were assessed using in vitro antioxidant assays (ABTS, DPPH, FRAP, ORAC, and β-carotene bleaching (BCB) assays). The difference in antioxidant activity and combination index were calculated to study the interactions among the herbs. Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, and glycosides were present in TC-16. TC-16 possessed the highest contents of phenolics (46.14 ± 1.40 mg GAE/g) and flavonoids (132.69 ± 1.43 mg CE/g) after C. longa. Phenolics and flavonoids are well-known antioxidant components that have been reported for their potential health benefits and prevention of diseases. The antioxidant mechanism of TC-16 was mainly by hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), a concerted movement of a proton and an electron in a single kinetic step. Synergism was reported in the antioxidant activity of TC-16 evaluated by ORAC and BCB assays while other assays have demonstrated antagonism. TC-16, a PHF comprising five herbs revealed that HAT is the main mechanism contributing to its antioxidant activity. Free radicals damage is associated with the development of many chronic health disorders. Hence, the antioxidant potential demonstrated by TC-16 could be beneficial in addressing this situation. A future study investigating the interaction of these herbs in combating cancer-related diseases is highly warranted, due to the multifactorial pathogenesis of cancer, which can be addressed by PHF that can act through multiple pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]