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Prunus yedoensis (P. yedoensis) is a popular flowering species that is appreciated worldwide. While there are very few genetic variations among the planted populations of this species that are considered cultivated, diverse variations have been found in natural wild cherry populations on Jeju Island. In this study, we assembled a consensus reference chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) sequence with an aim to build a standard reference sequence of cpDNA to study genetic diversity and to characterize individual lines with the DNA barcoding technique in P. yedoensis. Full cpDNA was sequenced using the Illumina high-throughput DNA sequencing platform (HiSeq2500). Standard cpDNA sequences of P. yedoensis were obtained based on the four collected samples and two previously reported cp genome sequences from the NCBI. The sequenced cp genome consisted of 131 genes, of which 37 encoded tRNAs, 8 encoded rRNAs and 86 encoded proteins. There were 17 duplicated genes, including 4 rRNA genes, 7 tRNA genes and 6 protein-coding genes, with an overall GC content of 36%. When compared with the reference genome, 66 SSRs, 168 SNPs and 531 INDELs were identified within the 4 individual samples. These divergences comprising SSR, SNP and INDEL markers will be useful for testing the maternal inheritance of the chloroplast genome, for detecting species differentiation and even for breeding programs. Standard whole cp sequences were successfully assembled, resulting in a good resource to develop DNA barcodes, which will facilitate studies on genetic diversity, evolution, origins and cultivar-specific marker development.

This study aimed to achieve an innovative, environmentally friendly, and effectual method for preparing a hybrid nanocomposite using reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-coated iron-doped zinc oxide (rGO/ZnO/Fe) to remove nitrate and phosphate from the reaction mixture. Prunus × yedoensis leaf extract was used as a reducer and was calcined at different temperatures (80 and 160 °C) for 24 and 48 h in a hydrothermal reactor. The physical characteristics of the rGO/ZnO/Fe composite nanostructure were studied by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). Elemental mapping and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) demonstrated the occurrence of elements, their distribution, and the magnitudes. The functional groups were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The composite was further characterized using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) technique, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and Raman spectroscopy. The composites treated at 80 °C for 24 h, 160 °C for 24 h, 80 °C for 48 h, and 160 °C for 48 h remove nitrate up to 82%, 86%, 92%, 96%, and phosphate up to 72%, 84%, 68%, 90%, respectively.

This experiment was conducted to predict the flowering time of cherry blossoms. The phenological model was used to predict the accurate flowering time, and investigate the daily temperature to calculate the chilling requirement for the flowering of Prunus yedoensis Matsum. Twigs of several decades-old trees were collected on January 3, 2010 and were kept in a 2℃ refrigerator. From January 16, 2010 onward, more twigs were collected from the same field every week. Twigs of both groups were laid in water in a 25℃ growth chamber. To determine the bud-burst date and the period required for dormancy break, the state of flower buds was observed every day. The daily maximum and minimum temperatures were also collected to calculate the accumulated degree hour of the chilling requirement until the dormancy was broken. To fined out the threshold temperature and chilling requirement for the approximate flowering date, the equation was used to set the threshold temperature from 5℃ to 9℃ at intervals of 0.1℃ and calculate chill days and anti-chill days repeatedly. The equations for calculating daily Cd and Ca, are given in Table 1 for each of the five cases. Based on this prediction model, the most optimized threshold temperatures and chilling requirements were predicted to be 5.8℃ and -116.8. The broken day of the rest was estimated to be February 17. The model, used for predicting the flowering day of Prunus yedoensis Matsum. from 2012 - 2019, showed that RMSE is 2.5 days when using the measured temperature and 4.4 days when used the average March temperature of 30 years (1980 – 2010). The results showed improvement compared with the previously announced predictions of flowering days.

Tissue cultures of Prunus yedoensis, a famous ornamental tree species, are important to mass-propagate true-to-type plants. Within in vitro cultures, bacterial contamination of explants hinders the propagation of sustainable cultures. Negative effects of endophytic bacteria vary from leaf yellowing to shoot-tip necrosis, ultimately resulting in shoot death. Explants with an overgrowth of endophytic bacteria on basal parts showed inferior growth than explants with no bacterial growth. Shoot growth and contamination became severe as the shoots were subcultured. Two endophytic bacteria, Pantoea spp. and Curtobacterium spp., were identified from the in vitro shoots using 16S rRNA gene sequences. Bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics was screened using different antibiotics. Two antibiotics, cefotaxime and tetracycline, effectively controlled bacteria growth. Although both antibiotics killed the bacteria, tetracycline adversely affected plant growth by reducing shoot growth. A broad range of cefotaxime concentrations had no toxic effects to the in vitro plants. However, concentrations between 50 and 150 mg/L showed no difference in eliminating bacteria. Shoot growth, induction, and elongation were greater in a medium supplemented with cefotaxime compared with a control (without antibiotics) and a medium amended with tetracycline.

Gummosis is widely spread in the plant kingdom, especially in stone-fruit species of the Rosaceae, which resulted from an interaction with biotic and abiotic environmental factors. In this study, gummosis in shoots of 'Yoshino' cherry (Prunus yedoensis) was studied in relation to hormonal status, leaf abscission and chemical composition of gums. An ethylene-releasing compound, ethephon (1 to 2%, w/w in lanolin) substantially induced gummosis when it was applied in shoots as lanolin paste from the end of July to late August. Methyl jasmonate (JA-Me, 2.5%) had little effect on gummosis. Simultaneous application of ethephon with JA-Me caused total leaf abscission at 4 days after treatment and no gummosis. Our studies also showed that simultaneous application of ethephon (1.0%) with low concentrations of JA-Me (0.05 and 0.1%) in the first half of September greatly induced gummosis, but ethephon alone was not effective. On the contrary, ethephon (0.1 and 1.0%) and JA-Me (0.05, 0.1, 1.0 and 2.5%) applied independently on petioles in early August did not induce leaf abscission. Ethephon (0.1 and 1%) applied simultaneously with JA-Me induced almost total leaf abscission. Analyses of chemical composition of gums formed by ethephon revealed that gums were mainly polysaccharides consisting of ca. 85% of neutral sugars (Ara: ca. 55%; Gal: ca. 20%; Xyl: ca. 10%) and 15% of uronic acids. On the other hand, in sweet cherry (P. avium) gummosis was induced by the application of ethephon and JA-Me, their simultaneous application substantially enhancing gummosis. These results suggest that gummosis and leaf abscission in shoots of 'Yoshino'O cherry are regulated by a signal network and/or a crosstalk between ethylene and jasmonates, and that the presence of leaves plays an important role in gummosis.

The seeds of Prunus yedoensis have slow and poor germination when intact (with endocarp). Cold and/or warm stratification, washing, and scarification with liquid nitrogen and sulfuric acid, in combination with or without gibberellic acid (GA3) application, were investigated as facilitators for rapid and high germination. No germination was observed without GA3 in any treatment for intact seeds. GA3 treatment for one day significantly shortens the mean germination time (MGT) and improves seed germination percentage. Immersion in liquid nitrogen followed by GA3 treatment, GA3 application to intact seeds and seed coat removed seeds significantly enhanced the germination and MGT to 63 ± 7.6% (8.6 weeks), 71 ± 5.0% (4.7 weeks), and 93 ± 5.1% (0.8 weeks), compared to untreated seeds or stratified seeds (0%) chilled for six months. Depending on the GA3 application method, results could be different in intact seeds. GA3 application with vigorous shaking accomplished higher germination and lower MGT (71 ± 5.0%, 4.7 weeks) than gentle shaking incubation (33 ± 6.0%, 10.4 weeks). The germination inhibitor(s) were located in the seed coat because seed coat extract inhibited germination in decoated seeds. Therefore, coat removal alleviates the inability to promote germination and it has the same beneficial effect as does the application of GA3. According to the results, it suggest that the effective application of GA3 on intact seeds or seed coat removal could overcome seed dormancy in P. yedoensis.

The flower buds continue to develop during the whole winter in tree fruit species, which is affected by environmental factors and hormones. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism of flower development during dormancy phase of sweet cherry in response to light, temperature and ABA. Therefore, we identified two cold induced gene (CIG) PavCIG1 and PavCIG2 from sweet cherry, which were closely to PpCBF and PyDREB from Prunus persica and Prunus yedoensis by using phylogenetic analysis, suggesting conserved functions with these evolutionarily closer DREB subfamily genes. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that, PavCIG1 and PavCIG2 were both localized in the nucleus. The seasonal expression levels of PavCIG1 and PavCIG2 were higher at the stage of endodormancy in winter, and induced by low temperature. Ectopic expression of PavCIG1 and PavCIG2 resulted in a delayed flowering in Arabidopsis. Furthermore, PavCIG2 increased light-responsive gene PavHY5 transcriptional activity by binding to its promoter, meanwhile, PavHY5-mediated positive feedback regulated PavCIG2. Moreover, ABA-responsive protein PavABI5-like could also increase transcriptional activity of PavCIG and PavCIG2. In addition, PavCIG and PavCIG2 target gene PavCAL-like was involved in floral initiation, demonstrated by ectopic expression in Arabidopsis. These findings provide evidences to better understand the molecular mechanism of CIG-mediated flower development and dormancy in fruit species, including sweet cherry.

Information on the phenological shift of plants can be used to detect climate change and predict changes in the ecosystem. In this study, the changes in first flowering dates (FFDs) of the plum tree (Prunus mume), Korean forsythia (Forsythia koreana), Korean rosebay (Rhododendron mucronulatum), cherry tree (Prunus yedoensis), and peach tree (Prunus persica) in Korea during 1920&ndash, 2019 were investigated. In addition, the changes in the climatic factors (temperature and precipitation) and their relationship with the FFDs were analyzed. The changes in the temperature and precipitation during the January&ndash, February&ndash, March period and the phenological shifts of all research species during 1920&ndash, 2019 indicate that warm and dry spring weather advances the FFDs. Moreover, the temperature has a greater impact on this phenological shift than precipitation. Earlier flowering species are more likely to advance their FFDs than later flowering species. Hence, the temporal asynchrony among plant species will become worse with climate change. In addition, the FFDs in 2100 were predicted based on representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios. The difference between the predicted FFDs of the RCP 4.5 and RCP 6.0 for 2100 was significant, the effectiveness of greenhouse gas policies will presumably determine the degree of the plant phenological shift in the future. Furthermore, we presented the predicted FFDs for 2100.

Dried leaves of Prunus yedoensis and P. lannesiana (50 mg) showed strong inhibitory allelopathic activities, e.g., more than 97% growth inhibition of lettuce seedling using the sandwich method. Similarly, among suspension cultures induced from leaves and peduncles of two Prunus species, we found the strongest inhibitory allelopathic activities of protoplasts of leaf-origin suspension cells of P. yedoensis, when the protoplast co-culture method for bioassay of allelopathy was applied with lettuce as a recipient plant. Effects of two putative allelochemicals, abscisic acid and coumarin, on both protoplast cultures of lettuce and P. yedoensis were investigated. Coumarin inhibited the growth of lettuce protoplasts from low concentrations, while abscisic acid stimulated. Abscisic acid inhibited the protoplast growth of P. yedoensis from low concentrations, while coumarin did not, but inhibited only at a high concentration (1 mM). Contents of abscisic acid in protoplasts were measured using small scale purification and Enzyme Linked Immno Sorbent Assay, and contents of coumarin in leaf-origin susepension cells of P. yedoensis were measured using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Coumarin was more likely the allelochemical causing the strong inhibitory allelopathic activities of P. yedoensis in the protoplast co-culture bioassay. Effectiveness of the protoplast co-culture bioassay method of allelopathy was discussed.

Prunus yedoensis Matsumura is one of the popular ornamental flowering cherry trees native to northeastern Asia, and its wild populations have only been found on Jeju Island, Korea. Previous studies suggested that wild P. yedoensis (P. yedoensis var. nudiflora) is a hybrid species; however, there is no solid evidence on its exact parental origin and genomic organization. In this study, we developed a total of 38 nuclear gene-based DNA markers that can be universally amplifiable in the Prunus species using 586 Prunus Conserved Orthologous Gene Set (Prunus COS). Using the Prunus COS markers, we investigated the genetic structure of wild P. yedoensis populations and evaluated the putative parental species of wild P. yedoensis. Population structure and phylogenetic analysis of 73 wild P. yedoensis accessions and 54 accessions of other Prunus species revealed that the wild P. yedoensis on Jeju Island is a natural homoploid hybrid. Sequence-level comparison of Prunus COS markers between species suggested that wild P. yedoensis might originate from a cross between maternal P. pendula f. ascendens and paternal P. jamasakura. Moreover, approximately 81% of the wild P. yedoensis accessions examined were likely F1 hybrids, whereas the remaining 19% were backcross hybrids resulting from additional asymmetric introgression of parental genotypes. These findings suggest that complex hybridization of the Prunus species on Jeju Island can produce a range of variable hybrid offspring. Overall, this study makes a significant contribution to address issues of the origin, nomenclature, and genetic relationship of ornamental P. yedoensis.

Cultivated flowering cherries (Prunus subgenus Cerasus), which are one of the most popular ornamental trees around the world, have been developed through artificial hybridizations among wild flowering cherries. Among the hundreds of cultivars of flowering cherries, Prunus ×yedoensis ‘Somei-yoshino’ is the most common and widespread. However, its origin and genetic relationship to wild P. yedoensis, naturally occurring on Jeju Island, South Korea, have long been debated. We used sequence polymorphisms in eight chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) noncoding regions to distinguish wild and cultivated flowering cherries among 104 individuals (55 accessions). We were able to distinguish two distinct groups, one corresponding to wild P. yedoensis collections from Jeju Island and the other collections of cultivated P. ×yedoensis from Korea, Japan, and the United States. The chlorotype diversity of wild P. yedoensis in Jeju Island and cultivated P. ×yedoensis collections in the United States was quite high, suggesting multiple natural hybrid origins and long history of cultivation from different original sources, respectively.

As with many other ornamental and cultivated plants that have been under human selection and cultivation for a long time, it has been a major challenge to trace back the complex evolutionary history of flowering cherry, Prunus yedoensis. This challenge has been further amplified by great morphological similarities, little molecular divergence, frequent natural and artificial hybridization, and poor documentation of breeding history among cultivated and wild flowering cherries. The origin and taxonomic distinction between wild P. yedoensis from Jeju Island, Korea, and one of the most popular cultivated flowering cherries, P. × yedoensis "Somei-yoshino" has been a controversy for the past few decades. We sampled many areas extensively, and using four different molecular markers we provided evidence for their independent origin. Wild P. yedoensis in Korea originated from multiple bidirectional hybridization events between two sympatric species, P. spachiana f. ascendens as the maternal species and P. serrulata var. spontanea/P. serrulata var. quelpaertensis as the most probable paternal species. On the contrary, our results supported a single artificial hybrid origin of P. × yedoensis "Somei-yoshino" from cultivated P. spachiana f. ascendens as the maternal species and P. speciosa, a species endemic to Izu Islands, as the paternal species. Based on extensive sampling, we provided strong evidence that wild and cultivated P. yedoensis are distinct taxonomic entities that have originated from different evolutionary processes. A potential for the development of new cultivars from wild P. yedoensis and conservation of diverse germplasms in situ insular setting and ex situ should be explored in the future.

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch) is a popular fruit consumed by people worldwide, owing to its pleasant flavor and high mineral nutrient content. A few plants from the genus Prunus, such as Prunus yedoensis, Prunus cerasus, and Prunus serotina have shown vasorelaxant and vasodilatory effects, to date, no study has investigated the vasorelaxation effects of the P. persica branch extract (PPE). The vasorelaxant effect of PPE was endothelium-dependent, and it was related to the NO-sGC-cGMP, vascular prostacyclin, and muscarinic receptor transduction pathway. K+ channels, such as the BKCa, KV, and KATP channels, were partially associated with PPE-induced vasorelaxation. PPE was effective in relaxing serotonin (5-HT)- or angiotensin II-induced contraction, furthermore, PPE attenuated Ca2+-induced vasoconstriction by IP3 receptors in the SR membrane, but its vasorelaxant effect was not associated with the influx of extracellular Ca2+ via receptor-operative Ca2+ channels or voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. Recognizing the rising use of functional foods for hypertension treatment, our findings imply that PPE may be a natural antihypertensive agent.

Cherry blossom (Prunus yedoensis) petals are used as ingredients in many cosmetics. However, despite their use in numerous products, the exact function of cherry blossom petals in cosmetics is unclear. Therefore, we need evidence-based studies to support the labeling claims that are made in cherry blossom products in the cosmetics industry. We investigated the skin anti-aging potential of non-enzymatic softening cherry blossom extract (NES-CBE) in this study. The extract desalinated, to improve its quality such that it can be used as a functional material for the skin. The anti-wrinkle effect of NES-CBE was investigated on human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) under solar UV (sUV) light exposure. We found that NES-CBE reduced the sUV-induced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 expression and modulated the transactivation of the activator protein (AP)-1. Furthermore, NES-CBE suppressed the phosphorylation of MEK1/2 and ERK proteins, indicating its regulation of sUV-induced MAPK signaling. Additionally, we observed NES-CBE reduced MMP-1 protein expression in a human skin equivalent model. Taken together, these results suggest that NES-CBE reduces sUV-induced MMP-1 protein expression through reducing AP-1 transactivation via regulation of the MEK1/2-ERK pathway.

The eco-friendly production of palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) by Prunus × yedoensis tree leaf extract was studied for the first time. Initial confirmation of PdNP production was confirmed by a color change from light yellow to dark brown. The optimization parameters show that pH 7, 40:5 Pd (II): leaf extract, 3 mM Pd (II), and a 30 min timeframe are essential for the production of PdNPs. The UV–Visible spectra (421 nm), X-ray diffraction peaks (2θ=42.5°), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of PdNPs and phytochemicals. Morphological structure analysis using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy shows that the PdNPs are mostly spherical in shape with rough edges with a size of 50–150 nm. Among all the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria tested, Bacillus subtilis (6 mm) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5 mm) showed a zone of inhibition against the synthesized PdNPs at 200 μg/well.

Green synthesis of platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) using Prunus × yedoensis tree gum extract was studied. Color changes, ultraviolet–visible spectra (277 nm), X-ray diffraction peaks (2 θ =38.17, 45.54, and 68.12), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of PtNPs. Transmission electron microscopy shows that PtNPs are mostly spherical and oval in shape, with an average particle size of 10–50 nm. Chemical constituents present in the gum extract may be responsible for the reduction of Pt ion. Among the five phytopathogens tested, the two pathogens Colletotrichum acutatum and Cladosporium fulvum show 15 mm and 18 mm zones of inhibition against synthesized PtNPs at 4 and 8 μg/well, respectively.

As an attempt to determine the identity of the old trees of flowering cherries planted in the yard of the Catholic Archdiocese of Daegu, we conducted comparative phylogenetic analyses between wild and cultivated Prunus yedoensis Matsum. We generated the phylogeny (MP) and haplotype network (TCS) of 25 individuals, including wild P. yedoensis, from Jeju Island, cultivated P. yedoensis `Somei-yoshino` from Korea and Japan, and P. spachiana f. ascendens (Makino) Kitam. from Jeju Island and Japan based on highly informative sequences of two cpDNA regions (rpl16 gene and trnS-trnG intergenic spacer). The wild and cultivated P. yedoensis were distinguished from each other in both the phylogeny and haplotype networks, and the old flowering cherry trees in Daegu had a cpDNA haplotype identical to that of the cultivated P. yedoensis `Someiyoshino`. Compared to the cultivated P. yedoensis `Somei-yoshino`, wild P. yedoensis appears to have greater haplotype diversity, presumably originating from the genetic diversity of P. spachiana f. ascendens that functioned as a maternal parent in the hybrid origin of wild P. yedoensis. A future detailed study requires extensive sampling of P. spachiana f. ascendens from Japan and Korea to determine their precise phylogenetic relationships relative to wild and cultivated P. yedoensis. We concluded that the old flowering cherry trees planted in the yard of the Catholic Archdiocese of Daegu are highly likely to be of cultivated origin rather than wild types from Jeju Island, as previously speculated.

‘Somei-yoshino’ (Prunus × yedoensis ‘Somei-yoshino’), which possesses beautiful large pink flowers, is the most commonly cultivated cherry blossom cultivar in Japan. However, the shoots only produce white flowers when grown indoors, as opposed to the more favourable pink flowers and the physiology of the colour development of this flower has not been studied yet. The pink colour of cherry blossom petals is produced by the pigment anthocyanin, the biosynthesis of which is known to be induced by light irradiation. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effects of light conditions, particularly of blue light on colour development and anthocyanin biosynthesis. We found that wavelengths in both the blue and red parts of the spectrum are involved in cherry blossom colouration, for which blue light of 450 nm is considered to be the most effective. Interestingly, monochrome red light irradiation had not affect the anthocyanin biosynthesis; however, irradiation with both blue and red lights induced greater anthocyanin production than irradiation with monochrome blue light, indicating an association between the blue and red light receptors. Our results provide an understanding of a part of the physiology of the colour development of ‘Somei-yoshino’ cherry blossom.

Tree growth equations are indispensable for modeling tree functions for ecosystem services. However, knowledge about the growth rates of street trees in Japan remains limited. This study aimed to examine the growth characteristics of street trees (Zelkova serrata, Platanus orientalis, and Prunus yedoensis) in Japan to generate growth equations of the diameter at breast height (DBH) based on measurements of tree rings. Specifically, diameter growth was used and compared against nursery-grown trees used in previous studies in Japan and street trees in the USA. The diameter growth rate per year of Z. serrata ranged from 0.43 cm to 1.12 cm, with peak growth occurring at 17.8 years of age. For P. orientalis, the diameter growth rate per year ranged from 0.25 cm to 1.59 cm, with peak growth occurring at 7.4 years of age. For P. yedoensis, the diameter growth rate per year ranged from 0.68 cm to 1.65 cm, with no apparent peak growth. The Chapman-Richards growth function generated the best fit as a diameter growth equation for all three species out of three tested theoretical growth equations (Chapman-Richards, Gompertz, and Logistic function). For 25-year old trees, the estimated DBH of Z. serrata and P. orientalis grown as street trees was 68 % and 84 % of that of nursery-grown trees, respectively. For street trees 25 years after planting, the estimated DBH of Z. serrata, P. orientalis, and P. yedoensis in Kyoto City was 62 %, 63 %, and 56 % of that of street trees in the USA. The diameter growth of street trees in Kyoto was substantially lower than that of nursery-grown trees and street trees in the USA. Therefore, region-specific growth equations must be developed for street trees when the planting environment and management approaches are different.

Prunetin, a component of herbal medicines and various foods, such as pea, peach, cherry, and Prunus yedoensis, is a useful pharmacological compound. We previously reported the potent vasorelaxant effect of the bark of P. yedoensis. Therefore, we investigated the vasorelaxant activities of prunetin on isolated rat aortic rings and hypotensive activity on spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) in this study. In the present study, prunetin (1&ndash, 30 &mu, g/mL) relaxed isolated rat aortic rings pre-contracted by phenylephrine (PE) in a concentration-dependent manner. Pre-incubation with prunetin (3 and 10 &mu, g/mL) inhibited vasoconstriction induced by the supply of Ca2+ in rat aortic rings pre-contracted with PE or KCl in a Ca2+-free Krebs&ndash, Henseleit (KH) buffer. Prunetin (10 &mu, g/mL) pre-treatment also inhibited caffeine-induced contraction of aortic rings in a Ca2+-free KH buffer. To investigate the hypotensive effect of prunetin, the systolic blood pressure (SBP) of the SHR was measured by using a tail cuff assay. The SBP of SHR was significantly lower in the prunetin (25 mg/kg)-treated group. These results suggested that prunetin decreased blood pressure and relaxed blood vessels by blocking receptor-operated calcium channels, voltage-dependent calcium channels, and ryanodine receptor channels.

Prunus ×yedoensis Matsum. ‘Somei-yoshino’ is the most common and widespread cultivar of the ornamental flowering cherries. We hereby report its complete chloroplast (cp) genome sequences generated by whole-genome next-generation sequencing approach. The cp genome size was 157,792 bp in length consisting of four regions; large single-copy region (85,914 bp), small single-copy region (19,120 bp), and a pair of inverted repeat regions (26,379 bp). The genome contained a total of 131 genes, including 86 coding genes, 8 rRNA genes, and 37 tRNA genes. A total of 92 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were detected within the cp genome. Its molecular features were compared with the complete cp genome of wild P. yedoensis, which occurs rarely in natural habitats of Mt. Halla in Jeju Island, Korea, displaying nearly indistinguishable morphology as P. ×yedoensis ‘Somei-yoshino’. Although both cp genomes were structured highly alike, the sequence variations between them were revealed in several single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Using additional individuals of wild and cultivated flowering cherries, PCR amplification confirmed that those SNPs were phylogenetically informative, providing distinction between wild and cultivated flowering cherries. In future study, the SNPs and SSRs reported in this study could be used to identify wild individuals from morphologically identical cultivars of flowering cherries and also to conserve the genetic diversity of wild flowering cherries in Jeju Island.

Background Hybridization is an important evolutionary process that results in increased plant diversity. Flowering Prunus includes popular cherry species that are appreciated worldwide for their flowers. The ornamental characteristics were acquired both naturally and through artificially hybridizing species with heterozygous genomes. Therefore, the genome of hybrid flowering Prunus presents important challenges both in plant genomics and evolutionary biology. Results We use long reads to sequence and analyze the highly heterozygous genome of wild Prunus yedoensis. The genome assembly covers > 93% of the gene space; annotation identified 41,294 protein-coding genes. Comparative analysis of the genome with 16 accessions of six related taxa shows that 41% of the genes were assigned into the maternal or paternal state. This indicates that wild P. yedoensis is an F1 hybrid originating from a cross between maternal P. pendula f. ascendens and paternal P. jamasakura, and it can be clearly distinguished from its confusing taxon, Yoshino cherry. A focused analysis of the S-locus haplotypes of closely related taxa distributed in a sympatric natural habitat suggests that reduced restriction of inter-specific hybridization due to strong gametophytic self-incompatibility is likely to promote complex hybridization of wild Prunus species and the development of a hybrid swarm. Conclusions We report the draft genome assembly of a natural hybrid Prunus species using long-read sequencing and sequence phasing. Based on a comprehensive comparative genome analysis with related taxa, it appears that cross-species hybridization in sympatric habitats is an ongoing process that facilitates the diversification of flowering Prunus. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13059-018-1497-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An aqueous extract of Yoshino cherry blossoms was used as a reducing agent for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. The silver nanoparticles obtained were characterized using UV–vis spectra, HR-TEM, XRD, SEM–EDS and FTIR analysis. These methods allow the synthesis of spherical and ovoid silver nanoparticles of approximately in the range between 10 and 20 nm with SPR band at 477.0 nm are obtained for the colloid synthesized at room temperature. The crystallinity of the nanoparticles was confirmed from the XRD pattern and the presence of biomolecules responsible for capping of the silver nanoparticles was confirmed by the FTIR spectra

Stomatal regulation involves beneficial effects of pruning mulch and irrigation on leaf photosynthesis in Prunus yedoensis and Ginkgo biloba under moderate drought. G. biloba showed conservative water use under drought. Leaf photosynthesis is highly sensitive to soil water stress via stomatal and/or biochemical responses, which markedly suppress the growth of landscape trees. Effective irrigation management to maintain leaf photosynthesis and information on species-specific photosynthetic responses to soil water stress are essential for the sustainable management of landscape trees in Japan, in which summer drought often occurs. In order to investigate effective irrigation management, we used plants with moderate soil water stress as controls, and examined the effects of daily irrigation and pruning mulch on leaf photosynthesis in container-grown Ginkgo biloba and Prunus yedoensis, which are the first and second main tall roadside trees in Japan. Stomatal conductance was significantly increased by pruning mulch and daily irrigation, with similar increases in leaf photosynthesis being observed in P. yedoensis and G. biloba. In order to obtain information on species-specific photosynthetic responses to soil water stress, we compared the responses of leaf photosynthesis and leaf water status to reductions in soil water content (SWC) between the two species. G. biloba maintained a constant leaf water potential, leaf water content, maximum carboxylation rate, and electron transport rate with reductions in SWC, whereas reductions were observed in P. yedoensis. We concluded that pruning mulch and irrigation effectively offset the negative impact of moderate water stress on leaf photosynthesis in summer in P. yedoensis and G. biloba via stomatal regulation, and also that G. biloba maintained its photosynthetic biochemistry and leaf water status better than P. yedoensis under severe water stress.

In the present study, we investigated a novel green route for synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocrystals using Prunus × yedoensis Matsumura leaf extract as a reducing agent without using any surfactant or external energy. Standard characterization studies were carried out to confirm the obtained product using UV-Vis spectra, SEM-EDS, FTIR, TEM, and XRD. In addition, the synthesized ZnO nanocrystals were coated onto fabric and leather samples to study their bacteriostatic effect against odor-causing bacteria Brevibacterium linens and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Zinc oxide nanocrystal-coated fabric and leather showed good activity against both bacteria.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the growth and macronutrient (C, N, P, K) status in the foliage of four tree species (LT: Liriodendron tulipifera L., PY: Prunus yedoensis Matsumura, QA: Quercus acutissima Carruth, PT: Pinus thunbergii Parl.) in response to fertilization with different nutrient ratios in a fire-disturbed urban forest located in BongDaesan (Mt.), Korea. Two fertilizers (N3P8K1 = 113:300:37 kg·ha−1·year−1, N6P4K1 = 226:150:37 ha−1·year−1) in four planting sites were applied in April 2013 and March 2014. The growth and nutrient responses of the foliage were monitored six times for two years. Foliar growth and nutrient concentrations were not significantly different (p &gt, 0.05) in response to different doses of N or P fertilizer, but the foliage showed increased N and P concentrations and content after fertilization compared with the control (N0P0K0). Foliar C and K concentrations were little affected by fertilization. Foliar nutrient concentrations and contents were significantly higher in PY and LT than in PT. The results suggest that the foliar N and P concentration could be used as a parameter to assess the nutrient environments of tree species restored in a fire-disturbed urban forest.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) using Prunus×yedoensis leaf extract was studied. Color changes, ultraviolet–visible spectra (436 nm), X-ray diffraction peaks (2θ=39.26, 45.54, 65.12, and 79.21) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed the presence of Ag NPs. Transmission electron microscopy shows that the nanoparticles are mostly spherical and oval in shape, with an average particle size of 20 to 70 nm. The phytoconstituents present in the leaf extract could be responsible for the reduction of Ag+ ions. The synthesized Ag NPs (30 μg) show a 18 and 20 mm zone of inhibition against skin pathogens Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis compared with commercial Ag NPs.

Parks account for a large proportion of green spaces in urban regions, but most previous studies have focused on the values of recreational services in urban parks-carbon uptake by plants in urban parks has been studied less extensively. Urban parks typically form complex landscapes in space and time by integrating multiple species with open canopies. Thus, to better understand canopy photosynthesis in urban park, measuring spatial and temporal variations in photosynthetic parameters and canopy structural variables is essential. Here, we report seasonal and spatial variations in two key photosynthetic parameters ( V cmax and J max which are the maximum rates of carboxylation and electron transport, respectively) and leaf area index (LAI) in Seoul Forest Park. During the peak growing season, we found an eightfold difference (20 to 149 μmol m −2 s −1 ) and fourfold difference (38 to 141 μmol m −2 s −1 ) in V cmax and J max , respectively, across 10 species. Over the seasons, two woody species ( Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino and Prunus yedoensis Matsum ), respectively showed three- to fivefold differences in V cmax and two- to fivefold differences in J max . We evaluated whether leaf nitrogen contents could predict V cmax and J max , and found significant correlations among the three variables during the peak growing season across 10 species, but no significant correlations among them over the seasons in the two woody species. LAI computed using in- situ observations and satellite remote-sensing imagery showed a high spatial heterogeneity during the growing season. These results highlight the considerable spatial and temporal variability in photosynthetic parameters and LAI, which implies that individual tree-based three-dimensional canopy modeling will be essential for accurate estimation of canopy photosynthesis in urban parks.

Current studies are either region-limited, sole-species, or have short researching periods; so, studies about various species are necessary throughout South Korea. In this study, trends of changes in the budding and flowering dates of spring plants by climate factors served to explore the process of urbanization. Four common species, such as Forsythia koreana (forsythia), Rhododendron mucronulatum (azalea), Prunus yedoensis (Yoshino cherry) and Prunus mume (Japanese apricot), are examined during the period from 1973 to 2008 due to the limitation of recent datasets. Budding of forsythia, azalea, Yoshino cherry and the flowering of Japanese apricot are defined as Type I (inland, of reverse letter ‘L’) and flowering of forsythia, azalea and Yoshino cherry were grouped as Type II (inland and south coastline). Prunus mume budding was different from others, so it was defined as Type III (subtropical climate). The inland phonological response is relatively cold and dry and areas are affected by the Siberian high atmospheric pressure. On the other hand, the south and east coastlines are humid and warm areas even in the winter season due to the southeastern wind. There were advancements for 3.1 days of forsythia, 5.5 days of azalea, 6.5 days of Yoshino cherry and 18.6 days of Japanese apricot during the research period. The greatest changes occurred with respect to the minimum temperature in January and the maximum temperature in February, while the precipitation change was not significant. However, in Type II, the precipitation significantly impacted plant flowering events. Precipitation was the lowest in early spring in South Korea and especially the flowering of plants was impacted by the small amount of precipitation in this region. Additionally, if precipitation after budding was over 1 mm for forsythia and azalea, 2 mm for Yoshino cherry and 7 mm for apricot, flowering occurred in over 80% of the region. South Korea is characterized as having a small amount of land and a high population density in cities. As such, it encounters strong influences due to global warming, as well as urbanization. Seven metropolitan cities and Suwon have populations over 1 million and showed more remarkable phenological events and changes of climate factors than the other regions. Especially in the case of shrubs, the phenological events were delayed in urban areas during this research. In conclusion, climate change, as well as urbanization, serve as strong factors leading to phonological and regional events in the ecosystem.

Urbanization exerts anthropogenic forcing that affects regional climate and ecosystems. With increasing levels of urbanization associated with urban population growth in the near future, understanding of the impact of urbanization on terrestrial ecosystems is important for predicting future environmental changes. This study evaluates the impact of urbanization on spring and autumn phenology by addressing the relationship between population density and phenology at nine stations in the Seoul Capital Area (SCA), South Korea during 1991–2010. We analyze the spring budburst dates for the six species (Prunus mume, Forsythia koreana, Rhododendron mucronulatum, Prunus yedoensis, Prunus persica, and Prunus pyrifolia) and the leaf coloring date for the two species (Ginkgo biloba and Acer palmatum). Regardless of species, the density of the urban population shows significant negative (positive) relationships with spring (autumn) phenology. In the SCA, urban population increases are related to earlier spring budburst up to 13 days and delayed leaf coloring up to 15 days. The most apparent spring budburst sensitivity is observed in Prunus mume, whereas the most dominant autumn leaf coloring sensitivity is observed in Acer palmatum. The relationship between population density and phenology is supported by the difference in nocturnal temperatures between stations which varies with the population density. Our results suggest that, in addition to global warming, future population growth should be considered in ecosystem assessments of human-induced environmental changes.

Pruni Cortex has been used to treat asthma, measles, cough, urticaria, pruritus, and dermatitis in traditional Korean medicine. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of Prunus yedoensis Matsumura bark methanol extract (PYE) on scald-induced dorsal skin wounds in rats. Scalds were produced in Sprague-Dawley rats with 100°C water and treated with 5% and 20% PYE (using Vaseline as a base), silver sulfadiazine (SSD), and Vaseline once a day for 21 days, beginning 24 hours after scald by treatment group allocation. The PYE-treated groups showed accelerated healing from 12 days after scald, demonstrated by rapid eschar exfoliation compared to the control and SSD groups. PYE-treated groups showed higher wound contraction rates and better tissue regeneration in comparison with the control group. Serum analysis showed that transforming growth factor beta 1 and vascular endothelial growth factor levels remained high or gradually increased up to day 14 in both PYE groups and then showed a sharp decline by day 21, implying successful completion of the inflammatory phase and initiation of tissue regeneration. These findings suggested that PYE is effective in promoting scald wound healing in the inflammation and tissue proliferation stages.

• Premise of the study: The subgenus Cerasus of the genus Prunus includes several popular ornamental flowering cherries. Of the hundreds of cultivars, P. ×yedoensis (‘Somei-yoshino’) is the most popular and familiar cultivar in Korea and Japan and is considered to be of hybrid origin. However, the hybrid origin of P. ×yedoensis and its relationship to wild P. yedoensis, naturally occurring on Jeju Island, Korea, are highly controversial.• Methods: We extensively sampled wild P. yedoensis, cultivated P. ×yedoensis, and numerous individuals from other species belonging to subgenus Cerasus on Jeju Island. Samples from 71 accessions, representing 13 species and one cultivar (P. ×yedoensis), were sequenced for nrDNA ITS/ETS (952 characters) and seven noncoding cpDNA regions (5421 characters) and subjected to maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analysis. Additive polymorphisms in the ITS/ETS regions were confirmed by cloning amplicons from representative species.• Key results: The nuclear (ITS/ETS and G3pdh) and cpDNA data, along with several morphological characteristics, provide the first convincing evidence for the hybrid origin of wild P. yedoensis. The maternal parent was determined to be P. spachiana f. ascendens, while the paternal parent was unresolved from the taxonomically complex P. serrulata/P. sargentii clade. The presence of two kinds of ribotypes was confirmed by cloning, and the possible origin of cultivated P. ×yedoensis from wild populations on Jeju Island was also suggested.• Conclusions: Bidirectional and multiple hybridization events were responsible for the origin of wild P. yedoensis. Extensive gene flow was documented in this study, suggesting an important role of reticulate evolution in subgenus Cerasus.

The vascular plants of the seven reservoirs of Jeonju City were identified as consisting of 309 taxa; 87 families, 231 genera, 270 species, 35 varieties, and four forms. Eight taxa of endemic Korean plants were identified, including Taxus cuspidata var. caepitosa and Aster koraiensis. Ten taxa of rare and endangered species were identified, including T. cuspidata and Penthorum chinense. A total of 26 taxa of floristic special plants were recorded: class V species (5 taxa) included Magnolia kobus and Prunus yedoensis; class IV species (3 taxa) included Prunus davidiana and Campanula takesimana; class III species (5 taxa) included Acer palmatum and Alisma orientale. The hydrophytes of the seven reservoirs of Jeonju City were investigated and, of a total of 56 taxa, 46 taxa of emerged plants, two taxa of submerged plants, five taxa of floating-leaved plants, and three taxa of floating plants were identified. Thirty-two taxa of naturalized plants were identified. Among these, Sicyos angulatus, Lactuca scariola, Paspalum distichum var. indutum and P. distichum were identified, which are all wild plants that may disturb the ecosystem. The study suggests that these areas require management for the physical removal of these wild plants.

Climate change is expected to have a significant effect on the first flowering date (FFD) in plants flowering in early spring. Prunus yedoensis Matsum is a good model plant for analyzing this effect. In this study, we used a degree day model to analyze the effect of air temperatures on the FFDs of P. yedoensis at Wuhan University from a long-time series from 1951 to 2012. First, the starting date (=7 February) is determined according to the lowest correlation coefficient between the FFD and the daily average accumulated degree days (ADD). Second, the base temperature (=−1.2°C) is determined according to the lowest root mean square error (RMSE) between the observed and predicted FFDs based on the mean of 62-year ADDs. Finally, based on this combination of starting date and base temperature, the daily average ADD of every year was calculated. Performing a linear fit of the daily average ADD to year, we find that there is an increasing trend that indicates climate warming from a biological climatic indicator. In addition, we find that the minimum annual temperature also has a significant effect on the FFD of P. yedoensis using the generalized additive model. This study provides a method for analyzing the climate change on the FFD in plants' flowering in early spring.

Simulations from six global climate models participating in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 are used to project future changes in regional early spring (February–April) temperature and in cherry (Prunus yedoensis) first-flowering date (FFD) over South Korea in order to investigate a potential plant growth response to local climate change. For the study, we statistically downscale daily Historical (1986–2005), RCP4.5 (2071–2090), and RCP8.5 (2071–2090) gridded model data to 59 cherry FFD observation sites over South Korea. In order to reduce the uncertainties in the model simulation produced by a single model, multi-model ensemble (MME) is performed after eliminating the mean systematic bias of each model. A shift of cherry FFD under global warming is estimated and compared with the observation and Historical simulation by applying the downscaled data to a DTS phenological model. The analysis reveals a projected advance in cherry FFD over South Korea by 2090 of 6.3 and 11.2 days compared to the current dates due to a rising mean temperature of about 2.0 and 3.5 K under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, which approximately correspond to moving north at a speed of 0.01 and 0.03oN year−1, respectively. These average yearly advances (0.07 and 0.13 days year−1) of cherry FFD in the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 simulations are 0.22 and 0.16 days year−1 lower, respectively, than the value of 0.29 days year−1 derived in previous studies with the SRES A2 scenario. Regardless of the difference between the SRES A2 and RCP8.5 scenarios, the discrepancy in the advancement tendency was primarily attributed to the inability of the previous studies to eliminate the systematic model biases, which led to overestimation of both the temperature and the FFD changes.

This study was conducted to select some useful plants as functional material candidates. A total of 38 plants were preliminarily screened for the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. The preliminarily selected 8 plants were further investigated to verify the in vitro inhibitory effect on inflammation and oxidative stress. Boehmeria platanifolia (root), Carpinus coreana (branch), and Eupatorium japonicum (leaf) inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 cells. Eupatorium japonicum (leaf) suppressed the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), whereas Boehmeria platanifolia (root) and Prunus yedoensis (branch) inhibited the transcription of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). Treatment with the extracts (2.5 ~ 20 μg/ml) of Abutilon theophrasti (leaf, flower/seed) and Hemistepta lyrata (stem) did not show toxicity on RAW 264.7 cell proliferation, but treatment with 2.5 μ g/ml of Boehmeria platanifolia (root) exhibited cell toxicity. Carpinus coreana (branch) and Prunus yedoensis (branch) showed potent scavenging activities on peroxynitrite. Akebia quinata (flower), Carpinus coreana (branch), and Prunus yedoensis (branch) effectively inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS). Abutilon theophrasti (leaf), Boehmeria platanifolia (root), Carpinus coreana (branch), and Eupatorium japonicum (leaf) exhibited strong inhibitory capacity with regard to nitric oxide (NO) production. The results suggested that Abutilon theophrasti (leaf) has in vitro anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, and that is a useful functional material candidate.

( #' & )* $ +), -. /- * 0 1 ABSTRACTThis study investigated the quality characteristics, oxidative stability, and antioxidative activity of a Korean fried rice cake, Gaeseong-Juak (doughnut of waxy rice) to which Prunus yedoensis Matsumura (PYM) extract, vitamin C, and BHT were added and stored at 60°C for 4 days. Gaeseong-Juak was prepared by adding PYM extract at 0, 0.5, 1, and 2% of waxy rice powder. It was found that as the content of PYM extract increased, L-values significantly decreased while a-value and b-value significantly increased (P

Objectives : The purpose of present study was to investigate the vasorelaxant activities and mechanisms of action of the ethanol extract of P. yedoensis leaf (PYL) on isolated rat aortic rings. Methods : Dried P. yedoensis leaves were extracted 3 times with 100% ethanol for 3 h in a reflux apparatus. Isolated rat aortic rings were suspended in organ chambers containing 10 ml Krebs-Henseleit (K-H) solution. The rings were maintained at 37℃ and aerated with a mixture of 95% O2 and 5% CO 2. Changes in their tension were recorded via isometric transducers connected to a data acquisition system. Results : PYL relaxed the contraction of aortic rings induced by phenylephrine (PE, 1 µM) or KCl (60 mM) in a concentration dependent manner. However, the vasorelaxant effec ts of PYL on endothelium-denuded aortic rings were lower than endothelium-intact aortic rings. And the vasorelaxant effects of PYL on endothelium-intact aortic rings were reduced by pre-treatment with Nω-Nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (10 µM), methylene blue (10 µM), 1-H-[1,2,4]-oxadiazolo-[4,3-α]-quinoxalin-1-one (10 µM), tetraethylammonium (5 mM). In addition, PYL inhibited the contraction induced by extracellular Ca 2+ in endothelium-denuded aortic rings pre-contracted by PE or KCl in Ca 2+ -free K-H solution. Conclusions : These results suggest that PYL exerts its vasorelaxant effects via the activation of Nitric Oxide (NO) formation by means of L-arginine and NO-cGMP pathways and via the blockage of receptor operated calcium channels, voltage dependent calcium channels and calcium–activated potassium channels.