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Berman (1982) proposed a loss of vowel length as one of two apparent phonological innovations shared by Wiyot and Yurok, but not Algonquian, implying a Ritwan subgrouping within Algic. However, once the Yurok reflexes of Proto Algic vowels are better understood, it is evident that the loss of vowel length proceeded very differently in Wiyot vs Yurok.

Accumulating evidence suggests that a recalcitrant problem first addressed by Howard Berman - how to explain an apparent correspondence among PA *t, W t, and Y ? - is best solved by reconstructing Proto-Algic doublets. These doublets suggest dialect mixing before the breakup of Proto-Algic society, with frequent elements commonly manifesting the prestige-dialect innovations. The combination of *? with adjacent consonants, once e-dropping is taken into account, explains the glottalized consonants in several words - but others remain and should be transcribed.

In Proto-Algic, a primary noun stem often ends in a derivational final, a secondary one in a nominalizer. Both usually resemble demonstrative pronouns in shape. A dependent noun stem lacks a root, and generally begins in **i:, **o:, or in a consonant other than **2 or **k(w). In those cases where it is paired with a medial beginning in **2 or **k(w), a prefix receptor (**-c, **--I, **-s, **-S, or **-t) is prefixed. Inflection for allocation differs for kin, human body parts, parts of nonhumans, and general nouns.

The Proto-Algic demonstrative roots *y-) and locatives (*m-, *n-) had 3 inflectional endings, referring to spacial or temporal distributions of entities, and which evolve into the gender systems of Yurok and Algonquian. It had two discourse pronouns: *k- 'previously mentioned', and *t- 'known but not previously mentioned'. *k- is semantically associated with past time; *t- develops into Algonquian future markers. The Algonquian verbs of 'being (somewhere)' also all come from among these deictics. Proto-Algic also had a relative pronoun (*?-), instrumental in the development of some types of changed conjunct, and an associative deictic (*er- ‘like another'), which produces a marker of obviation.

Proto-Algonquian had 6 or 7 orders (morphological types) of verbs. The potential order had three modes, the subordinative two, and, by one interpretation, the conjunct had four. By another, all conjuncts are participles in the protolanguage. Evidentials include an attestive, suppositive, dubitative, and perhaps a recollective. Only a few obviative and inanimate subject endings are as yet distinguished from animate proximate ones, but indefinite subject endings are much better distinguished from definites in the protolanguage than in its daughters.

A phonemic orthography poses serious problems for students from oral cultures, in part due to the very structure of such orthographies and in part due to negative transference from English spelling habits. A syllabic orthography minimizes the structural problems at the level of decoding, but is an obstacle to morpheme recognition and hence grammatical analysis. Early exposure to syllabics, followed by a gradual shift to a phonemic Roman alphabet, may be the most advantageous approach to Native literacy where grammatical analysis is one of its aims.

Yurok verb stems consist of one or two roots, often a medial suffix, and usually one or more final suffixes. When there are two roots the second is deverbal. Some roots are followed by postradical extensions. A medial suffix may follow either type of root. Different finals distinguish transitive from intransitive verbs. Some are abstract, some concrete. Elements are generally joined by one of two link vowels, e and o. Yurok nouns and particles are simpler in structure, but a few derivational finals have been identified. There are a few contractions at morpheme boundaries.

A Canadian university teacher of Native languages assessed the effectiveness of personal acquaintance with students, realistic reassurance, and avoidance of threatening behaviors for preventing and reducing school anxiety among Native students. Five case histories illustrate the successes and limitations of this approach. (Author/SV)