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B.F. Skinner applied his concept of operant conditioning to education. Skinner believed that people acted the way they did because they had been reinforced for behaving in a certain manner. His orientation to pedagogy was predicated upon the notion that a student's behavior could be modified by guiding the student through the learning process using carefully arranged reinforcements. Operant conditioning was the cornerstone of Skinnerian programmed instruction. Skinnerian programmed instruction broke subject matter down into small steps (frames), allowed for self-pacing, and provided immediate feedback. Skinner promoted the use of teaching machines and programmed textbooks. Teaching machines were used to control the presentation of frames, keep records of students' answers, and evaluate, score, and reinforce correct behavior immediately either by controlling and advancing the next frame or by displaying the correct answer. Programmed textbooks presented machine teaching-type learning sequences without hardware. The paper discusses implementation and effectiveness of teaching machines and programmed instruction during the 1950s-60s, noting teachers' and students' mixed responses and describing the eventual demise of this type of teaching. (Contains 58 endnotes.) (SM)

This final report summarizes the activities of TIME (Training in a Manila Envelope), a federally funded project designed to replicate the Child Care plus+ model of inservice training by providing: (1) a course on inclusion directly for child care providers and other early childhood professionals in rural areas across the nation; and (2) training for learning facilitators to replicate the model in local areas. With consideration for the unique qualities of each child, each early childhood setting, and each individual provider, TIME used lifelong learning practices matched with accessible methods to help child care providers in rural areas who may have specific needs and limited resources. A total of 524 providers successfully completed the self-study course provided directly through grant activities, demonstrating positive changes in knowledge, skills, and practice. One hundred forty of these providers participated in skill-based training provided directly by project staff by enrolling in a comprehensive, self-study, university course on the basic practices and skills which promote inclusion of young children with disabilities in early childhood settings. The other 384 providers participated in self-study courses facilitated by 24 learning facilitators replicating the model in local areas in nine states (Alaska, California, Idaho, Massachusetts, Montana, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Utah). This report includes a description of the course content, an annotated list of products developed by the project, examples of the project's impact, a list of future activities, and a discussion of lessons learned. (SG)

This review used meta-analytic techniques to integrate findings from 30 independent studies that compared programmed instruction to conventional methods of instruction at the secondary level. The meta-analysis demonstrated that programmed instruction resulted in higher achievement when compared to conventional methods of instruction (average ES=.40). No significant correlation was found between class size and effect size (r=.097, p>=.05). The most important aspect of this meta-analysis is that with this virtually zero correlation, it indicates that programmed instruction maintains its effectiveness over conventional methods of instruction regardless of class size. An appendix contains a data-coding form. (Contains 42 references, 1 table, and 5 figures.) (Author/RT)

The Individualized Vocabulary Instruction (IVI) program is a self-contained, individualized computer program that has been used to provide vocabulary instruction to disabled students at California's Los Angeles Pierce College (LAPC) since 1987. The IVI program is divided into two main word groups, called modules, with each module containing 1,125 words. The program performs pre- and post-testing of students, provides instruction, presents students with abundant opportunities for practice and repetition, administers regular tests, and controls and monitors student progress. The only staff member required is a facilitator who also monitors student progress, drops students from the computer as necessary, and moves students to new modules upon completion. The modules are divided into"chapters" of 15 words, with each chapter further divided into the following 4 lessons: (1) learning the meanings of the words in the chapter; (2) learning to spell each word associated with its meaning; (3) a practice quiz; and (4) a review of previous chapters. Students must complete all four lessons in a chapter before taking the chapter test. Upon completion of all the chapter tests, a final exam is administered. The IVI program has proven to be an effective method of teaching vocabulary and improving students' learning skills at LAPC. (TGI)

Little research has been conducted related to the integration of notetaking as an instructional strategy into computer-based instruction (CBI). This report studies the effect of computer-based notetaking on both achievement and instructional completion time. Background information is provided on both CBI and notetaking, and the problem of developing effective computer-based instruction is examined. A study was conducted where notetaking was added to computer-based instruction. The strategy involved forced notetaking where students were not allowed to advance instruction until notes had been taken. The purpose of the study was to test the effects on both achievement and time of forced notetaking and optional notetaking when incorporated into CBI. Eighty-one Eastern Illinois University undergraduate novice students participated in the first test, and 53 undergraduate expert students participated in the second test. Students were randomly assigned to one of three groups: forced notetaking, optional notetaking, or a control group with no notetaking. The lesson was an instructional unit on the human heart, accompanied by terminology and comprehension tests. Students were allowed to review their notes before the tests were administered. Software was adapted to collect student responses during evaluation, collect typed notes, and keep track of time spent on the instructional unit. Results showed that achievement of the treatment groups, optional and forced notetakers, was significantly better than that of the control group, non-notetakers. The forced notetaking group performed slightly, yet statistically significantly, better on the posttest than the optional group. (Contains 16 references.) (MAS)

This exploratory study was designed to introduce hypertext as a component of classroom instruction in a situation similar to that which might prevail in a public school setting. Linear and non-linear treatments of the same text were employed as an information source for a supplemental learning task prescribed by a teacher as part of classroom instruction. Participants were 80 4th grade students in an elementary school in a suburban school district. The students were grouped by experience with video game technology (high and low) in order to study the influence of that experience on their performance and satisfaction with the two hypertext versions of the learning task. The hypertext used in this study, the geological regions of Minnesota and their products, is related to, but does not duplicate, the content of a required fourth grade social studies unit. In the non-linear version, a hypertext web radiates from numerous graphic choice screens, which allows students at any point to select screens viewed earlier in the lesson, move on to new information, return to previous choice points, or quit the lesson. The linear versions presents all screens in a predetermined sequence, and only has options of continuing the sequence, reversing the sequence one screen at a time, or quitting. Performance was assessed by a student activity sheet, a delayed post-measure, and an attitude survey. No significant main effects or interactions were found for any of the dependent variables. A post hoc exploratory analysis revealed a significant main effect for gender on attitude toward lesson organization. Males found the lesson, regardless of treatment, more clearly organized than did females. (Contains 36 references.) (MAS)

A quantitative research synthesis (meta-analysis) was conducted on the literature concerning the effects of feedback on learning from computer-based instruction (CBI). Despite the widespread acceptance of feedback in computerized instruction, empirical support for particular types of feedback information has been inconsistent and contradictory. Effect size calculations from 22 studies involving the administration of immediate achievement posttests resulted in a weighted mean effect of .80. Also, a mean weighted effect size of .35 was obtained from 9 studies involving delayed posttest administration. Feedback effects on learning and retention were found to vary with CBI typology, format of unit content, and access to supplemental materials. Results indicate that the diagnostic and prescriptive management strategy of computer-based adaptive instructional systems provide the most effective feedback. The implementation of effective feedback in computerized instruction involves the computer's ability to verify the correctness of the learner's answer and the underlying causes of error. An appendix provides bibliographic information for the 20 studies included in the meta-analysis. Two tables illustrate data. (Contains 46 references.) (Author)

This qualitative study investigates the nature of the cognitive processes learners use in HyperCard environments: whether students' cognitive processes differ in learner-controlled versus program-controlled environments, and how much students learn in each. Participants were 20 undergraduate students in the college of education at a large southwestern university who were novices at using HyperCard. No overall dramatic differences between the learner- and program-controlled groups were found for cognitive processes in hypertext learning environments. The type of environment did not appear to correlate with appreciable differences in learners' cognitive processes. Ability differences, however, were found to be significant. The results of this study support previous findings that learner-controlled versions of hypertextual materials may be inappropriate for low ability students. Qualitative participant differences (i.e. interests, preferences) were also found to be meaningful, regardless of learning environment differences. (Contains 34 references.) (Author/AEF)

Project Success is a teacher, administrator, and university faculty designed program, aimed to improve teacher motivation and pedagogical skills, student attitudes and achievement, and parent attitudes in science and mathematics education for kindergarten through grade 3. The project used an education program that was self-pacing and auto-educational, contained well-defined objectives, and followed varied grouping patterns. Teachers received training which strengthened their skills, enabled them to challenge existing practices and attitudes, and encouraged them to try new techniques. In fall 1992 a pilot study was conducted in six primary classrooms where the continuous progress approach was being implemented. The hypotheses to be tested indicted that both groups were equal in science and mathematics. The children in the six primary classrooms served as the experimental group. The control group of children was randomly selected from three other elementary schools in the district. Children in both groups were 90 percent minority. Control children received traditional age-graded instruction. Analysis of results showed significant difference between methods of instruction in science with students in the continuous progress group demonstrating superior achievement at the .01 level of significance. Both groups performed equally in mathematics. The project was then expanded to 25 other classrooms in 2 schools where teachers were trained and received support for restructuring their teaching methods and classroom environments. A study of their students' achievement compared with a control group showed no difference in mathematics but significantly better science performance among the Project Success students. (JB)

Begun in 1988 to address issues of technology and education, the Maricopa County Community College District's (MCCCD's) Ocotillo program has expanded to provide a forum for faculty and staff to address general issues of the quality of learning and instruction in MCCCD through year-long committees on subjects of interest. This document features the year-end reports for 1993-94 of the following nine Ocotillo committees: (1) the Authoring Languages Committee, highlighting the need for college and district support of faculty programming activities; (2) the Emerging Technologies Committee, reviewing its efforts on the Internet and indicating that meeting attendance was poor; (3) the External Networks Committee, discussing the status of District networks, user training, newsgroup access, policy needs, and user expectations of MCCCD faculty; (4) the Information Literacy Committee, describing the group's activities and plans for implementing an information literacy curriculum; (5) the Intellectual Rights Committee, reviewing the efforts of the committee to increase copyright law awareness, define copyright guidelines for multimedia, and develop a policy on proprietary rights; (6) the Mechanisms for Technology and Evaluation and Implementation Commission, identifying the methods in which technology may be integrated into college systems; (7) the Open-Entry/Open-Exit Committee, describing issues related to education that does not follow traditional timelines; (8) the Technology-Based Testing Committee, describing its efforts to identify models for a technology-based testing system; and (9) the Technology Training Committee, discussing its plan to train faculty to use current computer technologies. (MAB)

This report examines the effects of feedback, through the use of computer-assisted instruction, on the problem-solving abilities of "at-risk" college students, i.e., students identified as academically disadvantaged. Study subjects were 30 male and female undergraduate students aged 18 to 23 years. The study used two computer-assisted instructional modules and a posttest. Information was presented to the students in sections of five screens of text, followed by five multiple choice questions with four alternatives. This cycle continued for a total of 15 screens of text and 15 questions. The difference between the two instructional methods was the type of feedback (knowledge of correct response or inductive) presented to the learner. The knowledge of correct response (KCR) feedback gave either a "right" or a "no, try again" response to learners, while the inductive feedback provided learners more information or rules leading to the correct answer. The posttest contained 21 questions not previously given in the instructional modules. Findings indicated mean scores for the 21-item posttest of 14.4 for the KCR treatment and of 13.95 for the inductive treatment indicating no performance advantage between the two feedback methods. (Contains 23 references.) (GLR)

The Stanford Computer-Based Educator Training Intervention (SCETI) was designed to provide teachers with extensive instruction in cardiovascular disease risk factor concepts and to assess the intervention's effects on a number of teacher variables mediating program implementation. The SCETI program was an interactive computer program which used principles of programed instruction to guide the user through units on coronary heart disease, exercise, nutrition, smoking, and stress. Six teachers completed the SCETI program while nine teachers participated in a half-day training workshop. Results indicate that exposure to the programed instruction-based SCETI program resulted in significant knowledge gains. The computer-assisted condition resulted in teachers learning significantly more than teachers in the workshop group. Four of the five computer-assisted instruction units were influential in the modification of self-reported teacher health behaviors. Self-reported data from SCETI teachers suggest that the methodology employed in the development and delivery of the SCETI program alleviated many teacher concerns, increased teacher comfort with and enthusiasm for the program, and enhanced teacher preparedness to deliver the program. (Contains 38 references.) (JDD)

This paper reviews findings from over 70 published studies investigating various facets of learner-control in computer-based instruction (CBI). General conclusions about the relative effectiveness of learner-control versus program-control are equivocal. Across these studies, however, are strong suggestions that individual learner differences can greatly contribute to both the choices students make and to the effectiveness of those choices. Some researchers examine those differences on a global level, interacting with such broad instructional variables as learner-control versus program-control, following an aptitude-treatment interaction paradigm. Other investigators, however, look for interactions occurring on a moment-by-moment basis under micro-instructional conditions, that is the task-specific situation encountered during the course of the lesson delivery. Other paradigms are also discussed. The review extends the previous surveys of Carrier (1984), Hannafin (1984), Milheim and Martin (1981), and Steinberg (1977, 1989), paying particular attention to the role of learner individual differences in the effectiveness of learner-controlled CBI. Specifically, the impact on learner-control effectiveness of both rational-cognitive processes and emotional-motivational states of the learner are highlighted. Useful instructional prescriptions are proposed which take into account these variables. Recommendations for future research are offered. (Contains 188 references.) (Author/KRN)

This paper reports on a study investigating the effects of studying alone or in cooperative-learning groups on the performance of high and low achievers. The effects of completing computer-based instruction using either learner or program control are also examined. A total of 92 sixth-grade students were classified by Stanford Achievement Scores and randomly assigned to group or individual treatments, stratified by achievement scores. Students completed training to enhance small group interaction before completing the computer-based tutorial and posttests. Both high and low achievers in the cooperative treatment increased achievement on program-controlled and learner-controlled computer lessons. The learner-controlled cooperative learning group made more options while checking their concept learning and spent more time interacting with the learner-controlled, computer-based tutorial than the learner-controlled individual learning group. Six statistical tables are appended. (Contains 13 references.) (Author/KRN)

This study examined the effects of instructional control and aptitude composition on performance, interaction, and attitudes during a computer-based cooperative science lesson. A sample of 152 fifth and sixth grade students completed the instruction either under the learner control (LC) or the program control (PC) treatment. In the LC treatment, students exercised control over the amount, review, and sequence of instruction. Students in the PC treatment followed a predetermined instructional path. At the end of the lesson, all students completed a posttest and an attitude questionnaire. They also indicated their confidence by predicting the score on the posttest. An identical test was administered two weeks later for measuring retention. Time for each group and interaction in representative groups were also recorded. Results suggested that both heterogeneous grouping and learner control had significant effect on learning, time on task, verbal interaction, and attitudes. Working in heterogeneous groups increased confidence more than working in homogeneous groups. High-ability students outperformed low-ability students on all dependent variables, except attitudes. The implications for designing microcomputer software and future research are discussed. Statistical tables showing means and standard deviations for scores of achievement, confidence, retention, attitude, instructional time, and verbal interaction are appended. (Contains 46 references.) (Author/KRN)

A classification scheme for multimedia interaction is described based on the degree of control and type of cognitive engagement experienced by learners in prescriptive, democratic, and cybernetic independent learning environments. Reactive, proactive, and mutual levels of interaction and their associated functions and transactions are discussed. Principles for designing interactive multimedia instruction emerging from this classification are discussed, along with current research on learner control. The classification is temporal and developmental. As levels of interaction are ascended by the instructional designer and reflected in the design of interaction, the amount of control abdicated to the learner changes. As instructional design theory advances, the categories offered will probably evolve. Four figures illustrate the discussion. (Contains 42 references.) (SLD)

This study assessed whether learner control of feedback has a beneficial effect in student performance and attitude, focusing on whether the degree of elaboration feedback needed for high performance could be determined. Program and learner control were used at three levels of feedback, verification, correct answer, and elaboration. Subjects were 126 undergraduate education majors at a southwestern university, divided into 6 experimental groups. This study and a previous study demonstrate that verification feedback alone is insufficient for subjects to reach high levels of performance on a posttest. This study shows only a minimum improvement when elaboration was added to the correct answer feedback. The additional time and expense needed to design the instruction with elaboration feedback is probably not warranted, since students perform at almost the same level with only the correct answer. The pattern of improved performance from verification to correct answer was seen in program and learner-control conditions. Program control subjects always outperformed learner control subjects, and learner control subjects spent less time studying feedback than did program control subjects. Results suggest that program control with correct answer feedback is the most effective and efficient way to present instruction on the computer. (Contains 4 references.) (SLD)

Scientific research that is conducted without the structure of a supporting scientific paradigm should be labeled pseudoscience in that such research is deceptive or false science. It is argued that much of the research in educational technology is pseudoscience, with the focus on learner control research. Learner control is the design feature of computer-based instruction that enables learners to choose freely the path, rate, content, and nature of feedback in instruction. It is contrasted with program control. Much of the research into learner control constitutes pseudoscience in that it fails to meet the major theoretical and methodological assumptions underlying accepted research methodologies within the positivist, quantitative paradigm. In the first place, the concept of learner control is poorly defined. In many studies the instructional treatments used are too brief to provide learners with sufficient experience for learner control variables to be actualized. In many media replication studies there is a lack of consequential or relevant outcome measures. Small sample sizes and large attrition rates are other problems that plague learner control research. Suggestions for improving the quality of learner control research, including the exploration of alternative research paradigms, are presented. One figure illustrates the continuum of learner control. (Contains 41 references.) (SLD)

This study examined the relationship between discrimination error (determined by content analysis and tryout data) and confidence of response (determined by self report). Subjects were 63 undergraduate students enrolled in a biology class for nonmajors who received classroom expository information and read a text on the topic before they completed a computer-based instructional module. Before subjects received any feedback on their responses to the module, they were queried about their confidence of response. Feedback was provided only to incorrect responses. The results indicated that students spent more feedback study time (i.e., elapsed time from when response-contingent feedback was first presented on the display screen until the learner pressed the appropriate key to view the next item) and required more question-based examples in studying content involving rules than concepts. As expected, students spend much more time studying feedback after fine discrimination errors than gross errors. Surprisingly, confidence of response was inversely correlated with feedback study time, as well as fine discrimination error and gross error. The negative relationship between fine discrimination errors and confidence of response could be explained by inconsistencies with the learners' self reports of their confidence of response and the relationship between high confidence errors and effort. (Contains 21 references.) (KRN)

Used 4 experimental conditions to examine the effectiveness of different instructional ratios of known to unknown vocabulary words on the reading progress of 46 students. Results suggest that students acquired new information as instructional ratios expanded. An inverse relationship was established between instructional material presented and material acquired during drill sessions. (SNR)

An activity-oriented programmed examination describes an actual occupational situation involving a typical work assignment. It is a promising way to measure occupational competence through written examinations. (SK)

Explored responses to interactive multimedia by 3- to 5-year-olds through examination of verbal and facial expressions, use of mouse, body movement, attitudes toward multimedia, and teacher comments. Found great interest in using the technology and little difficulty in adjusting to developmentally appropriate materials, which has implications for software design. (Author/SD)

Includes biographies of two educational media and technology leaders: (1) Robert Morgan, a psychologist who saw the potential of educational technology through working with programmed instruction; and (2) L. Paul Saettler, a historian for instructional and educational technology. (LRW)

Discusses benefits and concerns related to the use of Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), a self-paced course designed for developmental students. Presents findings from a study of psychology students who did well and who failed a modified PSI. Concludes that PSI's organizational structure did not contribute to student failure. (14 citations) (AJL)

Describes the Cognitive Learning from Automated Instruction (CLAI) model. Discusses cognitive learning, learning from instruction, and automatic instruction; reviews instructional theories relating cognitive processes and instruction; and describes the CLAI model for developing intelligent tutoring systems (ITS). Illustrates a practical approach to ITS development and provides an example of the CLAI model in a running tutor architecture. (PEN)