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El efecto acaricida de los aceites esenciales de Tagetes minuta, Heterotheca latifolia y Eucaliptus sp., contra Varroa destructor y su toxicidad sobre Apis mellifera L. fue evaluado en condiciones de laboratorio en dos ensayos diferentes. Para el primer ensayo, 10 mg del principio activo de las plantas fue disuelto en agua con un emulsionante al 3, 4 y 5%. Para cada componente y cada dosis, 10 hembras de V. destructor fueron pulverizadas en una torre de Burgerjon y transferidas a una cápsula de Petri con 5 pupas de abejas. Las cápsulas se mantuvieron en una estufa a 70% HR y 33-34ºC durante tres días. Los ácaros muertos y vivos fueron contados a las 12, 24 y 48 h post-tratamiento para cinco réplicas y sus respectivos controles. No hubo diferencias significativas entre las dosis del mismo componente y su efectividad varió entre 63 y 84% en relación al control. En el segundo ensayo, 100 abejas adultas fueron pulverizadas con 10 mg de una solución al 5% de los componentes y colocadas en la estufa a 70% HR y 33-34ºC. Cuatro réplicas y un control de cada muestra fueron tomadas simultáneamente. Las abejas muertas y vivas de cada réplica fueron contadas 72 h post-tratamiento. No hubo diferencias significativas en la mortalidad de las abejas entre los grupos control (P>0,05) y ésta fue relativamente baja para todos los tratamientos excepto para el eucaliptol cuyo porcentaje fue mayor al 58%. Se concluye que los aceites esenciales de T. minuta y H. latifolia pueden formar parte de un programa de manejo integrado de la Varroosis. Acaricidal effect of Tagetes minuta, Heterotheca latifolia, and Eucalyptus sp. essential oils against Varroa destructor and their toxicity for Apis mellifera L. were evaluated under laboratory conditions in two assays. In the first experiment, 10 mg of plant active principles were prepared in water solution with an emulsionant at 3, 4, and 5% concentrations. For each component and to each dose, 10 females V. destructor were pulverized in a Burgerjon tower and transferred to a Petri dish with 5 bee pupae to an incubation stove at 70% RH and 33-34ºC for 3 days. Dead and alive mites were counted 12, 24, and 48 h after treatment for five replications and their controls. No significant differences were found among doses of the same component and its effectiveness varied between 63 to 84% related to the control groups. In the second assay, 100 adult bees were pulverized with 10 mg of a 5% solution of the components and placed in an incubator stove at 70% RH and 33-34ºC. Four replications and a control treatment for each sample were taken simultaneously. Dead and alive bees for each replication were counted 72 h post-treatments. There were not significant differences in bee mortality among the control groups (P>0.05) and it was relatively low for all treatments except for eucalyptol in which the bee mortality percentage was higher than 58%. It was concluded that T. minuta and H. latifolia essential oils can play an important role in an integrated pest management program to control Varroosis in honey bee colonies.

Roman armies operated for the first time west of the Alps in around 150 BC, to provide assistance to the allied city of Massalia (Marseille) (Polyb. 33.8–10). More decisive campaigns took place during the 120s BC and the 100s BC. There are few archaeological traces of these military operations, however, and their interpretation is ambiguous. From the western Alpine arc to the Pyrenees, huge areas of southern Gaul seem to have been excluded from having a Roman presence until the last decades of the Republican period.The second half of the 2nd century BC and the first third of the 1st century BC were nevertheless a decisive turning point in the economic and monetary history of the Mediterranean Celtic region as a whole (Garcia 2014). In a context of increasing monetisation of local economies, the intensification of production activities and the reconfiguration of major transregional trade networks led to the adoption of new monetary references. These changes were initially the product of external trends, but were boosted by the economic dynamism that characterised the Celtic region as well as the Mediterranean basin and its fringes. On the ground, it was Italian private economic agents, rather than the representatives of the Roman city, who seem to have been the privileged partners of the indigenous elites and the first beneficiaries of this reorganisation of trade, which began in the mid-2nd century BC. The goal of this chapter is to highlight the contributions of the concept of ‘connectivity’, instead of that of conquest, in understanding the changes that affected monetary activities in southern Gaul between c. 150 BC and c. 70 BC. The objective will be to have a more precise view of the respective amount and diversity of action by Rome, by Italian firms and by local stakeholders. The chapter begins by characterising the main endogenous monetary dynamics that can be observed in southern Gaul during this period. This is followed by an assessment of how foreign currencies entered the area. There is then an attempt to define a new model to facilitate an understanding of how Rome intervened in local monetary activities.

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