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This thesis explores the changes of visitor patterns resulting from a major infrastructure development in Scotland's Cairngorms National Park (CNP), and in turn, the potential impacts on sensitive conservation areas. The A9, Scotland's longest road and transport corridor between the Central Belt and the Highlands, is currently being dualled between Perth and Inverness. To investigate the possible changes in visitor patterns between resulting from this major road development, and the implications for protecting sensitive sites from visitor disturbances, this study adopted a sequential mixed-methods approach based on two case study areas, including questionnaire surveys, an adopted Delphi technique, and by analysing user-created geographic information (UGI) from social media and GPS-tracking platforms. Involving the perspectives of visitors in the National Park, outdoor tourism businesses, and experts, and comparing these to UGI allowed the exploration of changes from different angles. With the help of UGI, spatiotemporal overlaps between outdoor activities and two grouse species (capercaillie and black grouse) could be identified. Based on this, this study assessed how possible changes in visitor patterns could potentially threaten disturbance-free areas in the future. Although the A9 dualling may not influence visitor distribution directly, the expected increase in the number and diversity of visitors and outdoor activities will affect the recreational capacity of both areas during popular visitation times. Crowding around current visitor hotspots may displace visitors and residents who seek solitude and 'wildness'. However, crowding is unlikely to affect visitors who arrive with a pre-determined schedule. The Covid-19 has fuelled outdoor tourism and recreation and led to substantial increases in visitor patterns and diversity in the two case study areas, and may therefore provide a useful indication of future visitor patterns. The patterns between pre-Covid-19 were compared with summer 2020 and summer 2021 using UGI and expert opinions. The study concludes that crowding will be likely during busy visitation times, and that this will displace certain visitor groups. This in turn may lead to increased use patterns in previously quiet areas. The implications for wildlife species, particularly the two grouse species are discussed. These include an increase in functional habitat fragmentation, modification, and loss, and greater wildlife disturbance. However, the increase in visitors also provides opportunities to (re)connect a higher number of people with nature, which in turn, could lead to increased support for conservation. The A9 dualling also involves the construction of additional active travel corridors, which could help to reduce the number of cars, decrease pressure on existing routes, and direct visitors to underused areas. With the aim of minimising threats and maximising opportunities of increased visitor numbers and types, necessary site management, and on-site and off-site visitor management actions were discussed. More rangers in and around sensitive sites, improved 'pre-visit' information, and multi-channel communication were regarded to be of highest importance in both areas. In AL, investment in infrastructure was considered second most important, as visitor numbers will likely exceed the capacity the current infrastructure can handle. To protect sensitive sites from increased disturbance in BS, it was suggested to enhance screening and create natural barriers with the help of habitat improvements. Comparing the two case study areas revealed both similar and different potential changes in visitor patterns, and therefore similarities and differences in possible threats and opportunities, and management priorities. The different methods also revealed some discrepancies in findings. This shows that visitor management actions should be assessed on a local scale based on multiple sources of information, in order to identify appropriate and efficient actions to protect sensitive sites from increased disturbance.

Research on the potential for the reuse of historic hydropower sites, such as mills and weirs, for the generation of hydropower in Scotland is limited, with only two previous studies. No definitive study has been made of historic hydropower sites in the Highlands and Islands, though the potential for further power generation from hydropower is mentioned in government commissioned reports. Research in other areas of Scotland and in Europe has demonstrated an extensive number of historic sites which may be suitable for reuse. This study aims to determine what potential exists for re-use of mill sites as hydropower generators in the Highlands and Islands region of Scotland, and how they may be used to benefit local communities. A novel methodology for surveying and analysing potential mill sites was developed using a range of tools and criteria identified through a review of Scottish hydropower guidance and best practice, and previous desktop surveys. The method criteria were verified in consultation with industry experts in hydropower generation, environmental protection, and heritage. 588 mill sites in the Highlands and Islands were identified using the Canmore service and Scottish listed buildings register. Further analysis using satellite imagery, current and historical mapping, and Google Streetview revealed that 27 of these sites may have some potential for re-use as hydropower generators. Targeted field visits to six sites validated the survey methodology and gained valuable insights into site conditions and potential approaches to their reuse. The number of visits was limited due to travel restrictions imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic, preventing most of the sites from being assessed in person. The methodology developed by this thesis has wider applicability across Scotland and elsewhere in the UK. The adaptive reuse of these sites may have a wide range of potential benefits to local communities beyond renewable energy production, serving to improve community empowerment. Reuse of buildings will help to reduce the level of vacant and derelict land in Scotland, positively impacting local community health and wellbeing. Reuse projects could provide local jobs and training for traditional construction skills. These sites may potentially make a small but meaningful contribution to Scottish government targets for community and locally owned energy, renewable heat, and the Just Transition to Net Zero.

There have been calls for planning decisions in Scotland to include community members' landscape perceptions in an attempt to increase involvement in the planning system and contribute to the development of more sustainable communities. This research aims to establish how community members' landscape perceptions can be elicited, integrated and interpreted, how they are influenced by change related to infrastructure development, and how this information may be used as part of the planning process. A sequential mixed method approach used participatory techniques including photo-voice and community workshops to explore the views of both planning professionals and community members. Academic research has moved towards exploring landscape as an embodied way of knowing and engaging with the local environment. This 'dwelling' perspective questions the more traditional concept of landscape as being a spatial product of human culture, and instead recognises that landscape is created through the relationality between space and meaning. Adopting a relational approach to landscape, the dualling of the A9 from Perth to Inverness was an opportunity to engage with residents about their landscape perceptions and how these change. Improved road access to urban areas was recognised to alter the sense of place and lead to the earlier state being desirable. However, these meanings attached to landscapes are not fixed and can be altered by proposals for landscape development. While roads and transport infrastructure were mainly associated with historic or heritage meanings, potential changes to transport infrastructure were not regarded as a threat to these meanings. Instead, the possible impacts on the natural environment and community cohesion were considered to be more significant. This demonstrates that communities need to express their perceptions in relation to specific developments. Therefore, community members' landscape perceptions should not be regarded as buried deposits of knowledge waiting to be unearthed to help inform future planning decisions. Instead, landscape perceptions should be regarded as a snapshot of the changing relationship between the community and their local environment. Understanding how these perceptions change can assist both community and planning professionals to collectively plan future infrastructure development.

Considering the wider context of opportunities and efforts related to a growing marine energy conversion sector, this study presents work aimed to enhance the understanding of wave resource characterisation for high and medium energy sites in Scottish waters. Results obtained through numerous field data campaigns over a 7 year period in the north of Scotland are shown, including ADCP deployments in shallow water at one of the UK's most energetic prospective wave power sites off the Isle of Lewis, but also use of wave measurement buoys in intermediate and deep water within the same area. To investigate opportunities for wave power developments in more sheltered sites, analysis is presented for an area in the Inner Hebrides, east of the island of Colonsay. An overview of additional data campaigns in and around Orkney and the Outer Hebrides is also contained in this study, and this includes the use of X-band radar for wave and current characterisation, with initial results showing promising opportunities for further work and analysis. Due to the complex nature of developing cost-effective and reliable wave energy conversion technologies, the WEC developer's focus is generally on device specific design engineering, based on generic assumptions in relation to the wave resource. Where this might be an appropriate approach with view to survivability and general performance, this study suggests that careful consideration must also be given to site specific resource characteristics, with particular view to exploitation of localised energy hotspots, seasonal variability, and installation and operational challenges from an early technology and project design stage. Only by carefully matching WEC technology against site and project specific resource data in a holistic approach, will it be possible to secure investor confidence, which is paramount to the development and funding of future medium and large scale wave energy installations in Scotland and beyond.

This thesis presents a local interpretation of an ecosystem approach; 'energyscapes' constructed through mixed methods, which captures private estate manager perception on land use, woodland expansion and collaboration over four case study areas in the Scottish Highlands. Each case study area of three contiguous estates forms a small landscape cluster, with every estate participating in field interviews, woodland planning and collaborative discussions. Private estates in Scotland cover a significant area of the Highlands and are dominated by traditional sporting interests and recreation that is not always considered compatible with woodland expansion, creating a culture of woodland neglect. Subsequently planting rates are falling and Scottish government woodland expansion targets are not being met, despite large areas of vacant land. Key areas of estate and woodland resilience are identified by land managers to improve social and structural connectivity using the novel landscape resilience mapping method, which presents land manager perceptions over a spatial scale linked to resilience concepts. The Forest Energy Tool developed in response to the need for economic justification for woodland expansion demonstrates the potential profitability of local woodfuel markets, as well as providing silvicultural treatments for further management aims. Estate resilience involves fostering effective integration between sporting uses, renewable energy and enhanced rural markets, such as value added forestry. Ecosystem approaches are normally expressed through aspirational policy that is difficult to translate into relevant practice for individual land managers. Energyscapes provides meaning to ecosystem approach policy through CBD principles and operational guidelines, and local practice; including integration of hydro schemes, forest energy and carbon sequestration at estate level and bridging of local and regional scales through six land manager identified landscape partnerships. However, developing leadership, as well as expertise and social capacity in landscape management, is required to mobilise such frameworks. Fundamental to realising these local ecosystem approaches is land manager trust and confidence, which can generate support for emerging land uses alongside tradition, increasing resilience by capturing and utilising the culture embedded within the landscape.

This study is part of the 'Sustainable Estates for the 21st Century' project, designed to understand how best to manage the relationships between people, place and the economy in the Scottish uplands. Large areas of these uplands are owned by private landowners who make significant decisions on land-use. However, past research has provided little insight into landowner decision-making: it is out-dated, inconsistent and offers limited explanation of underlying motives and priorities. In order to address this, a large-scale structured survey was combined with Q methodology and case study interviews on 11 estates. The results indicate that most private landowners have strong economic priorities, but they are not striving solely for instrumental goals of income or financial security. Those on purchased estates are also motivated by personal ambitions: expressive goals. On inherited estates, landowners are motivated by intrinsic motives: a strong sense of duty and attachment to place. Time and money clearly impact significantly on private landowners' motives and priorities for estate management: • The fundamental priority underpinning estate management is economic; only when the estate is financially secure are other issues considered to any significant extent. • Environmental priorities are most evident on purchased estates without economic constraints. • Lengthy family ownership creates strong ties. An increased sense of duty and commitment to social priorities comes with longevity of tenure. Despite the strength of the underlying economic motivation, most landowners are 'satisficers' trying to balance multiple objectives in order to address the various challenges to sustainability. This was particularly evident on large inherited estates where landowners take a paternalistic role. Consequently, retaining such landowners appears to be an important factor in building resilient communities. Although grants still incentivise many landowners to provide public goods, their contributions to all aspects of sustainability could be better rewarded. Government policy should improve the alignment of landowners' and public goals to achieve long-term sustainability in the uplands.

Privately-owned estates dominate Scotland's uplands, and their owners' decisions greatly influence rural communities. While the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 has altered power relations in rural areas, its impact on landowner-community dynamics has received little attention. Discourse on the contemporary ‘estate community' and factors determining its ‘sustainability' has also been minimal. The research reported here, involving in-depth case studies on six, upland, private estates, aims to address these knowledge gaps and contribute to Scottish policy on sustainable land use and community development. Scoping interviews with a group of expert commentators informed the design of a national survey of private landowners, and this, in turn, facilitated case study selection. The research questions were explored through a triangulated method of household questionnaires, interviews with key actors (in the local community and in estate management), and participant observation. This grounded, ethnographic approach generated an in-depth understanding of the threats and opportunities facing rural communities and private landowners in upland Scotland, in addition to the key factors required to promote their sustainability, and the constraints to achieving this goal. The results showed (i) that many key factors and constraints are shared by the estate and the community; (ii) that their sustainability is interlinked; and therefore (iii) that estate-community interaction and positive engagement is crucial. Evaluation of estate-community interaction and engagement processes reveals opportunities and challenges for effective approaches. Evaluation of the prospects for landowner/estate-community partnership working illustrates the opportunities for mutual benefits, and the need for greater community empowerment to ensure partnership success. These findings are reinforced from a Habermasian perspective. Private landowners are recommended to adopt three key roles - as contributor, enabler and partner - in order to contribute positively to estate community sustainability, and, in turn, to private estate sustainability and public legitimacy. The research informs a concluding set of best practice recommendations.

This thesis developed and piloted a suite of sustainability indicators for assessing the extent to which upland estate management in Scotland delivers sustainability goals. In Scotland, upland areas have a unique pattern of land ownership, with much of the land divided into ‘estates’ owned by private individuals and organisations, public bodies, and non-governmental and community organisations. Upland estate management objectives and land uses are wide-ranging - agriculture, forestry, nature conservation, property and sporting interests – set within discourses of sustainability and multifunctionality and also including new developments in tourism, renewable energy and biodiversity conservation. The complexity of upland estate management presents a great challenge, both theoretically and practically. To tackle this complexity, indicators were developed using a transdisciplinary research approach, combining academic and non-academic knowledge within a deliberative research process to address a ‘real world’ problem. A conceptual framework guided the adaptation of the Delphi technique so that the indicators were selected in a manner which: (1) increased transdisciplinary capacity; (2) facilitated knowledge integration; and (3) enhanced the potential for social learning. Using the adapted technique, the researcher facilitated an anonymous, iterative research process that took place over four rounds, and involved a mixed panel of individuals who comprised expertise in sustainability, rural and upland land use, and estate management. A contemporary and consensual definition of ‘sustainable upland estate management’ was developed by the panel, through the identification of five ‘sustainable estate principles’ (Adapting Management; Broadening Options; Ecosystem Thinking; Linking into Social Fabric; Thinking beyond the Estate) and 16 corresponding indicators (‘opportunities for sustainable estates’) within a ‘Sustainable Estates Toolkit’. The anonymous nature of the process created a safe environment for open dialogue and the researcher played an active role in stimulating participant motivation, creativity and learning.

Scottish forestry policy promotes integrated multifunctional forestry and continued forest expansion, and the private forestry sector is key to achieving these goals. However, a variety of factors can constrain multifunctional forestry, particularly in upland areas. Management objectives for private forests are also not always widely known and the potential impacts of government policy, and particularly conservation designations, on the delivery of multifunctional forestry have not been explored. Furthermore, the effects of landownership on forest management are unclear. The key aim of this research was to evaluate how forests and woodlands in the Cairngorms are being managed, and to determine the main constraints and opportunities to the further application of a multifunctional approach to forest management in the region at various scales. The research incorporated GIS analysis, a postal questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews. A typology was developed which identified three key management themes: sustainable multifunctional management; restricted functionality forestry; and dual function management. Forest owner preferences, economic concerns, government policy and the wider land use context all influence forest management. No consistent relationship was evident between specific types of landownership and forest management functionality. A link was apparent between species and structural diversity and forest multifunctionality. Overall, 'social' objectives were relatively weak, particularly for private forests, while 'environmental' objectives were consistently strong and 'productive/ economic' objectives varied in importance. The themes of constraint and opportunity were: spatial fragmentation and integration; forestry markets; bureaucracy and policy integration; public pressure and public support; and unpredictability and forest resource resilience. Many constraints result from temporal, spatial and organizational scale mis-matches between social and natural systems. The matching up of scales at the management, organizational and market levels and the treatment of forests as complex social-ecological systems is recommended. Further recommendations include: further land management integration; increased policy regionalization; timber market localization; and enhanced long-term planning.