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Understanding the potential impact of anthropogenic climate change on the hydrological regime of the Koshi River Basin (KRB) is very important for sustainable water resources and ecosystem management. The hydrological studies are mainly focused on the annual, seasonal, and peak flows of the hydrological regime; however, the ecologically relevant flows of the hydrological regime are less explored. In this study, we analyzed the different flow characteristics based on the magnitude, intensity, and duration using the Indicator of Hydrologic Alterations (IHA) under the influence of shared socio-economic pathway (SSP) scenarios. We found that the KRB will experience a shift in hydro-climatic events, an increase in rise and fall rates of flow, increase in monthly low flows of the hydrological regime, eventually affecting the livelihoods and ecosystem of the basin. This study highlights the importance of environmental flow components (EFCs) in a hydrological regime to better understand the flow characteristics during the future hydro-climatic variability. HIGHLIGHTS IHA and EFCs were grouped into five based on magnitude, intensity, and duration.; Increased uncertainty has increased the chances of untimely extreme events in the KRB.; Future post-monsoon and winter streamflow increases, sustaining the water table and aquatic life.;

This study evaluates the performance of 12 different general circulation models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) to simulate precipitation and temperature in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal. Four statistical performance indicators: correlation coefficient, normalised root-mean-square deviation (NMRSD), absolute NMRSD, and average absolute relative deviation are considered to evaluate the GCMs using historical observations. Seven different climate indices: consecutive dry days, consecutive wet days, cold spell duration index, warm spell duration index, frost days, very wet days, and simple daily intensity index are considered to identify the most suitable models for the basin and future climate impact assessment studies. Weights for each performance indicator are determined using the entropy method, with compromise programming applied to rank the GCMs based on the Euclidian distant technique. The results suggest that CanESM2 and CSIRO-MK3.6.0 are the most suitable for predicting extreme precipitation events, and BCC-CSM 1.1, CanESM2, NorESM1-M, and CNRM-CM5 for extreme temperature events in Himalayan river basins. Overall, IPSL-CM5A-MR, CanESM2, CNRM-CM5, BCC-CSM 1.1, NorESM1-M, and CSIRO-Mk3.6.0 are deemed suitable models for predicting precipitation and temperature in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal. HIGHLIGHTS The performance of general circulation models to simulate precipitation and temperature in the Koshi River Basin, Nepal was evaluated.; IPSL-CM5A-MR, CanESM2, CNRM-CM5, BCC-CSM 1.1, and CSIRO-Mk3.6.0 are suitable models for predicting precipitation and temperature.; CNRM-CM5, BCC-CSM 1.1, and CSIRO-MK3.6.0 are the most suitable for predicting extreme precipitation events.; BCC-CSM 1.1, CanESM2, NorESM1-M, and MPI-ESM-LR are suitable for extreme temperature events.;

This study investigates the potential impacts of climate change on water resources and evaluates adaptation strategies on rainfed rice water management under climate change scenarios in the Songkhram River Basin, Thailand. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to project the future water availability under climate change scenarios for the period of 2020–2044. Future annual water availability is expected to remain unchanged due to unchanged future rainfall but expected to reduce from June to November due to changes in seasonal rainfall. The effects of supplying irrigation water to reduce the impact of climate change and increase rainfed rice production were evaluated. To increase the rice production by 15%, it is proposed to construct a reservoir with a capacity of below 65 MCM in each of the 15 sub-basins to fulfill the irrigation water requirements during the rainfed rice season. Alternatively, adaptation at the farm scale can be implemented by constructing ponds with a capacity of 900 m3 to store water for 1 ha of rice field to meet the potential rice yield during the non-rainfed rice season. The results of this study are helpful to policymakers in understanding the potential impacts of climate change and the formulation of adaptation strategies for water and rice sectors in the basin. HIGHLIGHTS Adaptation strategies for rainfed rice water management under climate change scenarios were evaluated at the farm and basin scale.; The Soil and Water Assessment Tool model was used to forecast the future water availability for the rainfed cultivation.; A pond with a capacity of 900 m3 is recommended to store water for 1 ha of rice to produce the potential rice yield.;

The poor and vulnerable people are the most affected in any disaster and find recovery extremely challenging. After the 2015 Nepal earthquake, the need for inclusive and targeted policy provisions and socio-technical facilitation was well identified. Nepal's post-earthquake housing reconstruction is world's largest owner driven reconstruction program under which nearly 700,000 houses are being constructed. This paper examines policies, and implementation mechanisms for ensuring social inclusion in this post-earthquake housing reconstruction process in Nepal, specifically examining provisions and delivery mechanisms for finance, land, design and technology for addressing recovery needs of the most vulnerable houseowners in terms of achievements, effectiveness, and challenges of implementation. The paper uses mixed methodology and is informed by the primary survey data of 26,912 houseowners in eight municipalities of the Gorkha district and overall reconstruction data from National Reconstruction Authority and other relevant sources of the Government of Nepal. Data is analysed and interpreted to gain insights on the specific issues of the poor and vulnerable. Top-up grant assistance and subsidized loan scheme have not yet benefited the vulnerable households despite the policy provisions. At the same time, housing reconstruction process in Nepal has helped a significant number of landless households get ownership of homestead land, which is a remarkable achievement. Shift in building typologies needs to be deliberated in context of affordability, sustainability and disaster risk reduction in the future. While policy provisions are the first step for the inclusion of the vulnerable, the desired outcome is difficult and challenging to achieve without enabling environment for their own agency and targeted socio-technical facilitation. Experience of post disaster housing reconstruction in Nepal strengthens our understanding of ‘owner driven reconstruction’ to make it more inclusive.