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In this case study, we used a mixed-methods approach to identify the characteristics of environmental education (EE) lessons most positively associated with students' environmental literacy outcomes at one residential EE center in the U.S. Students attending residential EE programs spend multiple days participating in numerous lessons, activities, and experiences, resulting in perhaps more opportunities to enhance students' knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behavioral intentions related to environmental literacy. To explore what teaching approaches were most effective at enhancing immediate student outcomes and to provide insights for practitioners, we observed 80 lessons, tracked 20 observable teaching approaches, and administered questionnaires to measure students' self-reported changes in environmental literacy outcomes. Correlation analyses revealed four variables related to enhanced student outcomes: affective messaging, environmental issue-focus, relevance, and effective time management. Two variables, fact-based teaching and data collection, were negatively correlated with student outcomes. Linear regression analysis with these six variables resulted in a model explaining 34% of the variance in the environmental literacy outcome. We discuss these findings and share examples of each practice from our qualitative observations. We also discuss broader applications of our mixed methods approach for the field.

We explored the relationship between the fulfillment of students' psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness; student engagement; and student outcomes related to environmental literacy at a residential environmental education (EE) center. We surveyed diverse groups of middle school students (N = 1,278) following the completion of 80 EE lessons delivered at the NorthBay Adventure Center to assess their self-reported levels of these basic psychological needs, engagement, and environmental literacy outcomes. A structural equation model supported our hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between the fulfillment of these psychological needs and student engagement, and that more engaged students report enhanced outcomes of environmental literacy. We also discovered that autonomy has a direct positive effect on student levels of environmental literacy, suggesting an important role for student autonomy. We discuss implications of these findings and the practicality of trying to fulfill student's psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Liquid water occurs below glaciers and ice sheets globally, enabling the existence of an array of aquatic microbial ecosystems. In Antarctica, large subglacial lakes are present beneath hundreds to thousands of metres of ice, and scientific interest in exploring these environments has escalated over the past decade. After years of planning, the first team of scientists and engineers cleanly accessed and retrieved pristine samples from a West Antarctic subglacial lake ecosystem in January 2013. This paper reviews the findings to date on Subglacial Lake Whillans and presents new supporting data on the carbon and energy metabolism of resident microbes. The analysis of water and sediments from the lake revealed a diverse microbial community composed of bacteria and archaea that are close relatives of species known to use reduced N, S or Fe and CH4 as energy sources. The water chemistry of Subglacial Lake Whillans was dominated by weathering products from silicate minerals with a minor influence from seawater. Contributions to water chemistry from microbial sulfide oxidation and carbonation reactions were supported by genomic data. Collectively, these results provide unequivocal evidence that subglacial environments in this region of West Antarctica host active microbial ecosystems that participate in subglacial biogeochemical cycling.

Background: Despite an increase in international studies examining the experiences of parents with intellectual impairments and their children, few have utilised population-based data. This study investigated the behavioural and cognitive outcomes of 3-year-old US children of mothers with intellectual impairments compared with children of mothers without intellectual impairments. Methods: This study employed a secondary analysis of the Fragile Families Child and Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study in the US. Our analytic sample included mothers with intellectual impairments (n = 263) and a comparison group of mothers without intellectual impairments (n = 1298), as well as each sampled mother's focal child. When weighted, Fragile Families is representative of all births in US cities with populations over 200 000. Results: Children of mothers with intellectual impairments had poorer behavioural and cognitive outcomes in comparison to same-age children of mothers without intellectual impairments. Notably, however, children of mothers with intellectual impairments were not at increased risk of being aggressive unless their family income was below 200% of the federal poverty level. Further, families headed by mothers with intellectual impairments experienced multiple hardships related to socioeconomic factors, limited social supports and poor self-reported health. Conclusion: Appropriate policies and programmes must be developed and implemented to effectively support these families, such as increased financial benefits.

To predict the future contributions of the Antarctic ice sheets to sea-level rise, numerical models use reconstructions of past ice-sheet retreat after the Last Glacial Maximum to tune model parameters.sup.1. Reconstructions of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet have assumed that it retreated progressively throughout the Holocene epoch (the past 11,500 years or so).sup.2-4. Here we show, however, that over this period the grounding line of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (which marks the point at which it is no longer in contact with the ground and becomes a floating ice shelf) retreated several hundred kilometres inland of today's grounding line, before isostatic rebound caused it to re-advance to its present position. Our evidence includes, first, radiocarbon dating of sediment cores recovered from beneath the ice streams of the Ross Sea sector, indicating widespread Holocene marine exposure; and second, ice-penetrating radar observations of englacial structure in the Weddell Sea sector, indicating ice-shelf grounding. We explore the implications of these findings with an ice-sheet model. Modelled re-advance of the grounding line in the Holocene requires ice-shelf grounding caused by isostatic rebound. Our findings overturn the assumption of progressive retreat of the grounding line during the Holocene in West Antarctica, and corroborate previous suggestions of ice-sheet re-advance.sup.5. Rebound-driven stabilizing processes were apparently able to halt and reverse climate-initiated ice loss. Whether these processes can reverse present-day ice loss.sup.6 on millennial timescales will depend on bedrock topography and mantle viscosity--parameters that are difficult to measure and to incorporate into ice-sheet models.Radiocarbon dating of sediment cores and ice-penetrating radar observations are used to demonstrate that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has not retreated progressively during the Holocene epoch, but has instead showed periods of retreat and re-advance., Author(s): J. Kingslake [sup.1] , R. P. Scherer [sup.2] , T. Albrecht [sup.3] , J. Coenen [sup.2] , R. D. Powell [sup.2] , R. Reese [sup.3] , N. D. Stansell [...]