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Background: Although kidney diseases have a high prevalence, initial recognition and diagnosis of renal disease are complicated in avian medicine., Objective: The aim of this study is to assess the intraosseous excretory urography (IOEU) in order to introduce a new method for evaluation of kidney's function in broilers as a primary model of birds., Methods: A total of 10 male broiler chickens at the age of 20 days were included and evaluated with plain and serial post-contrast radiography and computed tomography (CT) scan to check the time and concentration of the contrast media (CM) passage from the kidney. In the next step, after the nephropathy induction with gentamicin, plain and serial post-contrast radiography and CT scan were repeated. After the necropsy, kidney samples were sent for histopathology evaluation, and statistical analysis of data obtained from image analysis was conducted., Results: After nephropathy induction, all of the chickens exhibited increase in kidney size and in histopathological evaluation, all the samples (30 of 30) showed severe tubular necrosis and mild glomerulopathy. In the IOEU, the average time to create the maximum concentration of CM, the average time to decrease the CM concentration from the kidney and the time of the complete clearance of CM indicated a significant incensement after nephropathy compared to the time before it., Conclusion: Intraosseous excretory urography (IOEU) is a safe contrast imaging modality and can be useful in the assessment of the urinary system in chickens to check the changes in kidney size and function., (© 2024 The Author(s). Veterinary Medicine and Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) is a serious systemic infectious disease in poultry infections, causing severe economic losses to the poultry industry. Previous studies have shown that secretion of virulence proteins was required for the pathogenicity of APEC through the secretion system. Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are a generalized secretion system of Gram-negative bacteria that play a key role in the long-distance delivery of virulence factors, but whether they are associated with the pathogenic mechanism of APEC has not been determined. In this study, OMVs were purified and characterized from AE17 (O2 serotype) by ultracentrifugation and density gradient centrifugation and their protein cargo was identified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In addition, 89 Zr was labeled after chelating AE17 OMVs by DFO and positron emission tomography PET imaging was used to track 89 Zr-DFO-OMVs in chickens and to pathologically analyze the distribution sites. This study showed that AE17 OMVs were membrane vesicles ranging in size from 20 to 200 nm and proteomic analysis revealed the presence of virulence proteins, including adhesion proteins OmpA, OmpC, OmpF, OmpX, FimH, FimC and FigE, and serum resistance proteins OmpT and MliC and immune response regulator proteins (FliC). In addition, in vivo PET imaging to track the biodistribution of AE17 OMVs showed that AE17 OMVs were taken up by the lung region and the gastrointestinal and renal regions but were not detected in other areas. Pathological analysis of the tissue sites where AE17 OMVs were ingested showed inflammatory responses and damage. These findings suggested that AE17 OMVs not only contained a group of virulence proteins associated with AE17 infection but can also deliver these virulence proteins over long distances and caused tissue inflammatory damage. Our study revealed a previously unidentified causative microbial signal in the pathogenesis of APEC that could aid in the development of vaccines and antibiotics effective against APEC., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

1. Footpad dermatitis (FPD) can be used as an important indicator of animal welfare and for economic evaluation; however, human scoring is subjective, biased and labour intensive. This paper proposes a novel deep learning approach that can automatically determine the severity of FPD based on images of chicken's feet.2. This approach first determined the areas of the FPD lesion, normal parts of each foot and the background, using a deep segmentation model. The proportion of the FPD for the chicken's two feet was calculated by dividing the number of FPD pixels by the number of feet pixels. The proportion was then categorised using a five-point score for FPD. The approach was evaluated from 244 images of the left and right footpads using five-fold cross-validation. These images were collected at a commercial slaughter plant and scored by trained observers.3. The result showed that this approach achieved an overall accuracy and a macro F1-score of 0.82. The per-class F1-scores from all FPD scores (scores 0 to 4) were similar (0.85, 0.80, 0,80, 0,80, and 0.87, respectively), which demonstrated that this approach performed equally well for all classes of scores.4. The results suggested that image segmentation and a deep learning approach can be used to automate the process of scoring FPD based on chicken foot images, which can help to minimise the subjective bias inherent in manual scoring.

Objective: Female reproductive tract disorders are common conditions of backyard poultry with an increasing demand for individual veterinary care. However, only limited case reports are available on diagnostic workup and outcomes of individual cases. This study aims at giving an overview of usually presented reproductive tract disorders, comparing diagnostic imaging findings with final diagnoses, and summarizing the outcome of the respective diseases., Material and Methods: The digital medical records archive of the University for Veterinary Medicine in Vienna was searched for chickens that were finally diagnosed with diseases of the reproductive tract, including all patients from May 1st, 2009 to May 31st, 2019. Information such as patient age, medical history, results of diagnostic imaging, final confirmed diagnosis, outcome, surgical protocol and necropsy findings was extracted., Results: Finally confirmed reproductive tract diseases were found in 57 of 315 female chickens. The most common conditions were egg-related coelomitis along with salpingitis or impacted salpinx (25/57), followed by ovarian or oviductal neoplasia (17/57). Clinical findings were unspecific in the majority of cases, but most conspicuous were chickens presented with a distended coelomic cavity and apathy. Coelomic ultrasonography as well as computed tomography proved to be valuable tools for distinguishing between the respective conditions. However, ultrasonography alone mainly failed (10/11) to differentiate between ovary or oviductal neoplasia and egg-related coelomitis with salpingitis or impacted salpinx, respectively. Computed tomography was perceived as a superior tool for final diagnosis. In total 6/6 CT-scans correctly made a definitive diagnosis. Nevertheless, accurate diagnosis was only possible after celiotomy with the necessity of consecutive surgery for most of the reported cases. As an overall outcome 34 of 57 patients were either euthanised or died, whereas only 23 chickens could be successfully treated and discharged. Several hens were reported to be doing well at home, according to regular check-up procedures within 4 years post-surgery., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Diagnostic work-up and treatment of hens with reproductive tract diseases can be challenging. Clinical presentation and diagnostic imaging provide important information, still celiotomy is often required for final diagnosis. The condition of the chickens is usually serious. Within our study, 40 % of the hens could be treated successfully. Therefore, a realistic assessment of each individual case and clarification for the owners are important., Competing Interests: The authors confirm that they do not have any conflict of interest., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a disease of surfactant clearance in which functional abnormalities in alveolar macrophages lead to accumulation of surfactant within alveoli in mammals. Histologic examination of 6 avian autopsies, including 4 chickens, a turkey, and a cockatiel, revealed accumulation of hypereosinophilic densely arrayed lamellar material in the lungs that was magenta by periodic acid-Schiff stain and diastase resistant. Transmission electron microscopy of the proteinaceous material in 2 cases demonstrated alternating electron-dense and electron-lucent lamellae that formed whorls and had a regular periodicity of 6-14 nm, consistent with pulmonary surfactant. Given the anatomic differences between avian and mammalian lungs, we designated the presented condition "pulmonary proteinosis," which can be observed as both an incidental finding or, when severe, may be a contributing factor to death through respiratory failure.

The crus haemorrhage is one of the main causes of carcass defects in Pekin duck processing houses. However, its pathologic features are currently unclear. In order to examine the injury to the hind limb veins and illustrate the pathologic characteristics of crus haemorrhage in Pekin ducks, a total of 68 Pekin ducks with crus haemorrhage (test group) and 10 unaffected ducks (control group) were collected in this study. Five ducks randomly selected from each group were examined by computed tomographic venography with 2.0 mm thickness, 120 kVp, and 90 mA. Pathological changes were observed macroscopically, and under a microscope and electron microscope. The computed tomographic venography results showed no differences in the main hind limb veins between Pekin ducks with crus haemorrhage and the control. Macroscopic results demonstrated that the haemorrhage only occurred in crural muscles, most frequently in musculus gastrocnemius and musculus tibialis cranialis. In severe cases, muscular rupture and multiple intermuscular blood clots could be observed. Histological analysis showed rupture of myofibers and massive red blood cells between muscle bundles. Besides, infiltration of connective tissues and inflammatory lesions could be seen. However, no differences were observed in other organs between these two groups. The main ultrastructural characteristics were myofibrillar rupture and split, accompanied by mitochondrial membrane disintegration and vacuolization. All these results indicate that the haemorrhage in crus is a focal myopathy with the characteristics of bleeding, rupture, and inflammatory lesions. Research highlights CTV was a feasible method to evaluate the hind limb veins in Pekin ducks. The focal myopathy presented here only affected crural muscles. The focal myopathy was characterized by bleeding, rupture and inflammatory lesions.

Helcococcus ovis is a slow-growing, pyridoxal-dependent, Gram-positive coccus belonging to the Peptostreptococcaceae family. Bacteria belonging to the genus Helcococcus are considered normal inhabitants of keratinized epithelium in humans; however, several reports support their role as pathogens in humans and several animal species. This case report describes the identification of H. ovis in a white leghorn rooster with valvular vegetative endocarditis and hepatitis. In February 2017 one dead, 7-yr-old, white leghorn rooster was submitted to the California Animal Health and Food Safety Turlock laboratory for diagnostic testing. Postmortem and microscopic examination revealed vegetative endocarditis and aortic thrombosis associated with large numbers of Gram-positive cocci. Myocarditis and extensive necrotic hepatitis were also noticed. Helcococcus ovis was isolated in large numbers from the aortic endothelium and confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Bacterial colonies become evident 48 hr postincubation and exhibited a satellite growth around Escherichia coli on blood agar plates. A similar relationship has been described between Helcococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. The primary site of infection in this chicken was not determined. To our understanding this is the first report of H. ovis infection in an avian species. The fastidious nature and nutritional requirements of Helcococcus spp. must be considered in order to allow proper identification and avoid misdiagnosis. Further studies are needed to define pathogenesis, virulence factors, and predisposing conditions associated with this microorganism.

The keeping of backyard poultry and waterfowl as pets has become increasingly popular in recent years, resulting in a rising case load of these patients in veterinary practices. Diagnostic imaging techniques are taking a leading role in rapid diagnosis in the live bird. We provide an overview of the most important points regarding radiographic and ultrasonographic imaging procedures in these birds. We also review the most commonly documented radiographic and ultrasonographic signs in these species, as well as discuss unique anatomic characteristics with which the veterinarian should be familiar.

Twelve serotypes of fowl aviadenovirus, namely, FAdV-(1-8a and 8b-11), have been identified, among which FAdV-4 is the aetiologic agent of hepatitis hydropericardium syndrome (HHS) in chickens. Outbreaks of HHS have been documented in many countries, causing significant economic losses. Real-time PCR methods described so far in the literature cross-detect different serotypes of FAdVs. In this study, we aimed to develop a TaqMan-based real-time PCR assay for the specific detection of FAdV-4. A pair of primers targeting the hexon gene and a TaqMan probe were designed. Using different copy numbers of plasmid DNA carrying the hexon gene as template, we showed the detection limit of this assay was 10 1  copies/reaction, which was 10 times higher than conventional PCR. The assay was highly specific for FAdV-4 and did not cross-detect 11 other serotypes of FAdVs, avian influenza virus, Newcastle disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus or subgroup J of the avian leukosis virus. The reproducibility of the assay was assessed by five independent reactions using different copy numbers of plasmid DNA (10 3 and 10 5 ) as template, and the results showed 0.56-1.15% coefficient of variation for inter-assay variability. Furthermore, the assay was validated with 80 clinical samples. Real-time PCR showed that 76 out of 80 samples were positive for FAdV-4 (95.0% positivity) while 68 out of 80 were tested positive by conventional PCR (85.0% positivity). Our data suggest this real-time PCR assay could be an attractive tool for screening, confirmatory diagnosis and specific differentiation of FAdV-4 infection.

Radio-guided localization (RGL) for identifying occult breast lesions has been widely accepted as an alternative technique to other localization methods, including those using wire guidance. An appropriate phantom model would be an invaluable tool for practitioners interested in learning the technique of RGL prior to clinical application. The aim of this study was to devise an inexpensive and reproducible training phantom model for RGL. We developed a simple RGL phantom model imitating an occult breast lesion from inexpensive supplies including a pimento olive, a green pea and a turkey breast. The phantom was constructed for a total cost of less than $20 and prepared in approximately 10 min. After the first model's construction, we constructed approximately 25 additional models and demonstrated that the model design was easily reproducible. The RGL phantom is a time- and cost-effective model that accurately simulates the RGL technique for non-palpable breast lesions. Future studies are warranted to further validate this model as an effective teaching tool., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Lameness represents a major welfare and production issue in the poultry industry with a recent survey estimating 27% of birds lame and 3% unable to walk by 40 d of age. A variety of factors may induce lameness and are typically grouped into 2 broad classes on the basis of being infectious or skeletal in nature with the latter accounting for the majority of cases. The current work sought to build upon a large body of literature assessing the anatomical properties of bone in lame birds. Our specific objectives sought to identify relationships between relevant anatomical properties of the tibia and metatarsus using digital quantification from radiographs of legs and a measure of walking difficulty. Resulting output was statistically analyzed to assess 1) observer reliability for consistency in placing the leg during the radiograph procedure and quantification of the various measures within a radiograph, 2) the relationship between the various measurements of anatomical bone properties and sex, bird mass, and gait score, and 3) the relationship between each measurement and leg symmetry. Our anatomical bone measures were found to be reliable (intra-rater and test-retest reliabilities < 0.75) within radiograph for all measures and 8 of the 10 measures across radiographs. Several measures of bone properties in the tibia correlated to difficulty walking as measured by gait score (P < 0.05), indicating greater angulations with increasing lameness. Of the measures that manifested a gait score × bird mass interaction, heavier birds appeared to exhibit less angulation with increasing difficulty walking with lighter birds the opposite. These interactions suggest possibilities for influencing effects of activity or feed intake on bone mineralization with the bone angulation observed. Our efforts agree with that of others and indicate that angulation of the tibia may be related to lameness, though subsequent efforts involving comprehensive measures of bird activity, growth rates, and internal bone structure will be needed if the validity of the measures are to be accepted.

Primary bone tumors are only occasionally reported in avian species. This paper presents the cases of an osteosarcoma in a 6-yr-old free-range chicken and a chondrosarcoma in a 3-yr-old barred Plymouth Rock chicken. The well-differentiated, moderately productive osteoblastic osteosarcoma arose from the synsacral vertebrae and had metastasized to the liver. The chondrosarcoma was well differentiated and firmly attached to the left side of the keel. There was no evidence of metastasis.

Femoral bone degeneration has been recognized as an important cause of lameness in broiler chickens for many years, but the pathogenesis of this condition has not been completely elucidated. The current work presents comprehensive analyses of changes associated with femoral bone degeneration based on findings from gross pathology, histopathology, biochemistry, and synchrotron-based imaging techniques. Gross lesions were predominantly seen in epiphysis and metaphysis of the proximal femur, and infrequently in distal femur, but we did not observe gross lesions in the diaphysis. Bone fractures were observed occasionally, but the most common lesions involved separation of articular cartilage of the femoral bone head, with progressive erosions of the subchondral bone. In advanced cases, on histopathological examination, changes in femoral bone were indicative of chondronecrosis and osteonecrosis. Computed tomography revealed that the degenerative process involves loss of trabecular bone. The course of the lesion development in the mineralized matrix appears to be coupled with increased bone resorption associated with excessive proliferation of pathologically altered osteoclasts. Light microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and biochemical analysis provided consistent evidence that lowered protein content of the bone organic matrix is an integral component of femoral bone pathology, but these changes do not appear to be associated with excessive activity of matrix metalloproteinases. Taken together, our findings indicate that femoral bone degeneration is associated with structural changes occurring in both inorganic and organic matrix of the bone, but insufficiency in protein metabolism is most probably a primary aetiological factor in the natural history of femoral bone degeneration. However, it is important to stress that our findings do not negate the importance of bacterial infection in the evolution of this condition. Pathogens play a critical role in the progressive pathogenesis of this condition, which ultimately is manifested, in most instances, as femoral head necrosis.

Bone fractures in laying hens are both a welfare and an economic concern for the poultry industry. The aim of this study was to use radiographs to quantify fracture incidence in 6 lines of noncommercial high-producing laying hens. A total of 451 hens (n = 71 to 78) were killed at 47 wk (White Leghorn-Black, White Leghorn-Blue) or 65 wk of age [Barred Plymouth Rock (BR), White Leghorn-Burgundy (WL-BUR), Columbian Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Red (RIR)]. Radiographs were obtained with hens in 2 positions (lateral and ventrodorsal) and were used to identify fractures in the skeleton. Data on scallop-shaped indentations (possibly fractures) of the keel bone were also collected. After radiography, the left wings were removed for analysis of humeri, radii, and ulnae. Data for the 2 age groups were analyzed separately. The overall incidence of hens with at least 1 fracture was 6.6 and 15.7% in the 47- and 65-wk-old hens, respectively. Fracture incidence in 47-wk-old hens was not different between White Leghorn-Black and White Leghorn-Blue lines. Significant line differences were observed in the 65-wk-old hens, with at least 1 fracture found in 29.5% of RIR hens versus 9.5 and 4.2% observed in Columbian Plymouth Rock and WL-BUR lines, respectively. Fracture incidence in BR hens (18.2%) was greater than in WL-BUR hens. Fractures in RIR hens occurred predominantly in the furculum and wing bones, whereas pubic bones were most affected in BR hens. The proportion of hens with scallop-shaped indentations of the keel ranged from 36.1 to 88.2% and differed between lines in both age groups. High egg production did not seem to be associated with bone fragility in these lines. Two of the older lines (RIR and WL-BUR) had similar egg production, number of eggs to 60 wk, and egg shell weights at 4 ages but had a significantly different fracture incidence. The line differences in fracture incidence may have been affected by calcium metabolism, bone structure, and body weight.

1. B- and M-mode echocardiography was used to compare cardiac function in broilers with spontaneous ascites syndrome with that of normal chickens. 2. Thirty ascitic chickens and 15 normal chickens aged three, 4, 5, and 6 weeks from the same flock (180 birds in total) were examined. They were restrained gently in a natural standing position, and echocardiographs were obtained from a 7.0-MHz linear transducer placed on the left pectoral apterium. Indices of cardiac structure and functioning were calculated from the echocardiographs, and some were normalised to body weight. Heart rate was also measured. 3. All cardiac structural indices in both ascitic and normal chickens increased with age. Compared with normal chickens, right ventricular diameter at the end of systole in ascitic chickens was greater at 4, 5 and 6 weeks of age. Ventricular septal thickness at the end of both systole and diastole was greater in ascitic chickens at 5 and 6 weeks. Left ventricular free wall thickness at the end of diastole was less in ascitic chickens at 3 weeks. However, all the structural indices decreased with age after normalisation with body weight. 4. The heart rate of ascitic chickens was lower at 4, 5 and 6 weeks. Normalised left ventricular fractional shortening was lower in ascitic chickens at 4, 5 and 6 weeks, as was normalised right ventricular fractional shortening. Incrassation of the ventricular septum (Delta T), which changed little in normal chickens, was less at 4, 5 and 6 weeks in ascitic chickens. Left ventricular fractional shortening, right ventricular fractional shortening and Delta T were all negatively correlated with ascites heart index at all ages. 5. Taken together the results suggest heart failure of both ventricle, but that right ventricular dysfunction is more extensive than left ventricular dysfunction. We suggest that secondary pulmonary hypertension would result in these ascitic chickens due to volume overload.

This study reports novel insight into the aetiology of pulmonary hypertension and ascites in broiler chickens. The scope of measurements was focused on anatomical and functional parameters, and blood flow patterns in leghorns (resistant to ascites), fast-growing broilers (susceptible to ascites), broilers developing ascites, and ascitic broilers evaluated in vivo using echocardiography, and further examined in the context of postmortem findings. Both, in vivo observed features and postmortem findings, showed clear differences between broilers and leghorns, and between normal and ascitic broilers. Abnormalities in the heart chamber geometry and blood flow patterns were detected upon echocardiographic examination in all ascitic broilers. Right and left atrio-ventricular (AV) valve regurgitation were common findings in ascitic broilers and some apparently normal broilers, with left AV valve insufficiency being a predominant feature with respect to degree and frequency of occurrence. Blood flow disturbances were not detected in leghorns. Left ventricular fractional shortening (functional parameter) was considerably reduced (P < 0.01) in ascitic birds (mean: 21.7 +/- 2.0 SE) in comparison with normal broilers (mean: 39.1 +/- 3.6 SE), or leghorns (mean: 43.3 +/- 2.4 SE). The presented findings indicate that pathological and functional changes in the left ventricle and atrium play a significant role in the pathogenesis of ascites in broilers. Severe dilation of the left atrium and pulmonary veins seen on postmortem examination, as well as regurgitant blood flow in the left atrium, demonstrated by Doppler study in ascitic birds, provide evidence that chronically elevated pressure in the left atrium is involved in the aetiology of pulmonary hypertension and ascites in fast-growing broilers.

The formation of a provisional extracellular matrix represents an important step during tumor growth and angiogenesis. Proteins that participate in this process become activated and undergo conformational changes that expose biologically active cryptic sites. Activated matrix proteins express epitopes not found on their native counterparts. We hypothesized that these epitopes may have a restricted tissue distribution, rendering them suitable targets for therapeutic human monoclonal antibodies (huMabs). In this study, we exploited phage antibody display technology and subtractive phage selection to generate human monoclonal antibody fragments that discriminate between the activated and native conformation of the extracellular matrix protein vitronectin. One of the selected antibody fragments, scFv VN18, was used to construct a fully human IgG/kappa monoclonal antibody with an affinity of 9.3 nM. In immunohistochemical analysis, scFv and huMab VN18 recognized activated vitronectin in tumor tissues, whereas hardly any activated vitronectin was detectable in normal tissues. Iodine 123-radiolabeled huMabVN18 was shown to target to Rous sarcoma virus-induced tumors in chickens, an animal model in which the epitope for huMab VN18 is exposed during tumor development. Our results establish activated vitronectin as a potential target for tumor therapy in humans.

Egg-laying hens require substantial amounts of Ca to support eggshell formation. Over time, structural bone is catabolized to provide some of the Ca required; the structural bone is not replaced. As the hen ages, this can eventually lead to osteoporosis. Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT) is a nondestructive technique used to measure bone mineral density (BMD). QCT is used diagnostically in humans to assess osteoporosis; BMD determined by QCT is correlated with other, more invasive methods of bone mineral determinations, such as ashing. An x-ray is sent through a bone at multiple angles within a plane to generate a 2-dimensional image and a 3-dimensional calculation of volume and BMD. The technique allows resolution of total, trabecular, and cortical BMD and cross-sectional areas. The separation of bone types allows very precise measurements of the bone compartments most important in Ca supply for eggshell formation and bone strength. QCT has been adapted in our laboratory to measure BMD in vivo and ex vivo in poultry; values obtained for poultry bones are moderately correlated with destructive means of assessing bone quality such as breaking strength, ashing, and chemical bone mineral determinations. Thus, changes in BMD of individual birds can be measured over time; BMD at specific time points can be correlated with production parameters and eggshell quality traits. QCT is an effective technique to measure BMD in laying hens, which allows resolution of total BMD as well as cortical and trabecular BMD.

The genetic component of osteoporosis in caged laying hens is large, and a method for detecting hens susceptible to fracture could be useful in breeding programs. A radiographic absorptiometry film method was modified by video digitization from an image intensifier and computer analysis and termed digitized fluoroscopy (DF). Humeral and ulnar DF values were measured in 165 hens during lay. Relationships (P < 0.001) were seen between DF assessments from 25 wk onward and postmortem measurements at 70 wk. We conclude that DF can detect poor bones in hens early but is problematic. Quantitative ultrasound was also investigated. We measured amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS) in the third toe in hens. Nutritional studies revealed Ad-SoS values correlated with postmortem peripheral quantitative computerized tomography, (control group, r = 0.48, P < 0.001; treatment group, r = 0.39, P < 0.001). In caged and free-range hens, Ad-SoS correlated with shear strength (r = 0.33, P < 0.001, all hens) and radiographic density values (r = 0.53, P < 0.001, all hens) measured postmortem. The Ad-SoS values were higher in free-range than in caged hens (1,904 vs. 1,850 m/s, P < 0.001). Ad-SoS measurements were made in hens from a study where divergent genetic selection has produced high and low bone index lines with 92% difference in tibia strength. The value in high bone index hens was higher than in low bone index hens at 32 (P < 0.001), 42 (P < 0.001), 52 (P < 0.05), and 62 wk (P < 0.001) in generation 8. In an Ad-SoS heritability study, heritability estimates ranged from 0.15 to 0.39. We conclude that Ad-SoS is a heritable trait, reflects other bone measurements, and rapidly detects poor bone quality in hens.

The present study focuses on lesions of the pericardium commonly observed in fast growing broilers. These lesions are examined in the context of electrophysiological and functional changes associated with cardiac performance and patho-physiology in broilers succumbing to acute or chronic heart failure. Typical lesions involving the pericardium in fast growing broiler chickens included: (1) excessive pericardial effusion, (2) locally extensive or focal adhesions between parietal and visceral components of the pericardium, (3) fibrous deposits on visceral pericardium, and (4) thickened pericardium. Echocardiographic evidence indicated that severe pericardial effusion and/or adhesions may have a restrictive effect on heart pump function, where both diastolic and systolic function of the heart may be affected. Electrocardiographic data showed a strong trend indicating that pericardial adhesions may be associated with ventricular arrhythmia and increased risk of sudden death in fast growing broilers. Relatively high levels of matrix metalloproteinase MMP-2 activity have been found in pericardial effusions from affected chickens, suggesting a possible involvement of this enzyme in the aetiology of pericardial lesions. The present results indicate that pericardial lesions may be associated with biochemical, morphological, electrophysiological, and functional changes occurring in the hearts of broilers succumbing to acute or chronic heart failure and ascites.

Microscopic and radiographic observations, as well as ash, calcium, phosphorus, copper, manganese, and zinc concentrations, were evaluated from femora of 32- to 35-wk-old male turkeys from two different farms (A and B). Turkeys from Farm A were divided into birds with femoral fracture (AF) and without femoral fracture (ANF). Turkeys from Farm B did not have femoral fractures (BNF). In the mid-diaphyseal cortex of turkeys without femoral fractures, collagen fibers were evenly distributed parallel to the transverse plane of bone surface. In contrast, collagen fibers were disorganized and the cortex was osteoporotic in turkeys with femoral fractures. Each turkey with femoral fractures also had callus on the mediocaudal region of the femoral middiaphysis. The periosteal callus was interrupted at the insertion of the puboischiofemoralis muscle. Muscle attachment to the bone might have interfered with the formation of periosteal callus. The concentration of calcium was lower in the cortex of turkeys in group AF compared to turkeys in groups ANF and BNF. The focal nature of the callus, along with the low levels of calcium, is indicative of a local repair response with alteration in cortical structure and altered concentrations of minerals in the cortex. These changes in the bone and the routine handling of the birds might have predisposed the turkeys to complete fractures of the femur.

Four birds in a flock of 125 purebred Crested ducks (Anas platyrhynchos f. dom.) had cerebellar signs of unknown etiology. They had radiographically evident perforations of various sizes in the parieto-occipital calvaria. Gross necropsy of euthanatized ducks revealed yellow intracranial masses in the brain of each. Histologically, these masses were intracranial lipomas consisting of univacuolated fatty tissue separated into lobules by strands of connective tissue. The masses had caused serious deformation of the rostral part of the cerebellum, leading to a nearly complete flattening of cerebellar folia, and were interpreted as the cause for the central nervous clinical signs observed. These intracranial lipomas were similar to those previously reported in other animals and humans.

Study Design: This study was designed to investigate the pathologic mechanisms of idiopathic scoliosis using experimentally induced scoliosis in chickens., Objective: To understand the process of producing a scoliotic deformity in pinealectomized chickens., Summary of Background Data: Pinealectomy in chickens consistently produces scoliosis with anatomic characteristics similar to those of human idiopathic scoliosis. Pinealectomized chickens are an important animal model for the study of idiopathic scoliosis., Methods: In this study, 40 chickens were divided into two groups; 20 chickens treated with pinealectomy and 20 with a sham operation as control subjects on the second after hatching. The chickens in both groups then were killed at intervals ranging from 1 to 20 weeks after surgery. Their spines were examined visually and radiologically for the presence of a scoliotic curve and vertebral deformities., Results: Rotational lordoscoliosis developed in pinealectomized chickens. The chickens with severe scoliosis were characterized by apically wedge-shaped vertebrae. In contrast, no scoliosis with any vertebral deformity developed in any of the chickens that received a sham operation., Conclusions: Because there normally is evidence of lordosis in the thoracic spine of chickens, the rotational instability of the spine induced by pinealectomy may produce a scoliotic deformity as a secondary phenomenon. Pinealectomy in chickens consistently produces scoliosis with anatomic characteristics similar to those of human idiopathic scoliosis. The authors believe that disturbance of the equilibrium and the posture mechanism associated with a defect in melatonin synthesis after pinealectomy may promote the development of rotational lordoscoliosis.

Bone fragility in caged laying hens is a severe welfare problem, with fracture incidences in commercial flocks of up to 30% of all hens during their life. This fragility has been attributed to osteoporosis, the etiology of which is multifactorial in birds, as in humans, with genetic, environmental, and nutritional components. Greater understanding of the development of the disorder in hens could be obtained from the same kind of in vivo assessments available in human studies of osteoporosis. These high technology techniques for evaluation of bone mineral density (BMD), such as single or dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (SXA or DXA), quantitative computerized tomography (QCT), or attenuation by ultrasound (US), are so far not widely available to nonclinical researchers. We have modified an older X-ray film technique, radiographic absorptiometry (RA) by digitization of the analog video signal from a Philips BV-25 image intensifier, in single pulse fluoroscopy mode, and subsequent computer analysis with the public domain software package, NIH-Image 1.60. Compared with conventional RA, which uses standard X-ray film, our modified technique reduces X-ray exposure and allows the operator to digitize, store, and analyze many more images in a shorter time. We have called this modified technique "digitized fluoroscopy" (DF). In a longitudinal study of humeral radiographic density in a flock of 165 laying hens, significant relationships (P < 0.001) were observed between assessments made as early as 25 weeks, utilizing this DF technique in the humerus, and breaking strengths (and other postmortem indicators of osteoporosis) measured at 70 weeks. We conclude that DF can predict some eventual parameters of bone mass measured at 70 weeks from 25 to 40 weeks onward in bones from the same site in laying hens. The relationship between DF measurements made in the humerus and postmortem measurements of radiographic density and breaking strength made at another site (tibia) are less strong but still significant from 40 weeks onward.

1. Heritabilities of a range of morphometric, radiological and strength characteristics were measured in the bones of end-of-lay hens. 2. Tibial strength (TSTR), humeral strength (HSTR) and keel radiographic density (KRD) were moderately to strongly inherited and were combined in a Bone Index which was used as a basis for selection. Data are available on 6 generations/cohorts of hens (n=1306), the last 3 of which are the progeny of divergently selected birds. 3. All bone characteristics used in the Bone Index responded rapidly to divergent selection and were strongly correlated with each other. In the last generation, the lines differed by 25% for TSTR, 13% for HSTR and 19% for KRD. The heritability of the index was 0.40. 4. There were no apparent genotype by environment interactions between birds housed at 2 different locations. 5. The incidence of bone fractures was significantly decreased in the line selected for high bone strength compared to the line selected for low bone strength. Humerus fracture incidence differed by a factor of 6 between the lines in the last generation. There was a strong quadratic relationship between tibia strength and overall fracture incidence (r2=0.92, P<0.01). 6. The results imply that selection for enhanced bone strength can be used as a long-term strategy for alleviating the problems of osteoporosis in laying hens.

A study has been made of the application of radio frequency (RF) ultrasound to the detection of muscular dystrophy by monitoring passively stretched skeletal muscle. The tests included detection of integrated backscatter changes in response to both static loading, in which muscle samples were stretched and allowed to relax, and stress relaxation. In both static and step strain loading conditions, the dystrophic muscle was found to exhibit little change in backscatter power while normal muscle responded to loading with significant changes in integrated backscatter. The backscatter response is compared with mechanical properties of the tissue (time constants and stress-strain constants). Both mechanical and ultrasonic time constants of relaxation are not significantly different between normal and dystrophic tissue, but stress-strain constants do differ. The difference in response of dystrophic and normal tissue appears to be due to a repression of motion of the constituent anatomy of dystrophic muscle which is responsible for the change of echogenicity with passive stretch.

In the present study the effect of pyridoxine deficiency on the ultrastructure and morphology of bone and its metabolism was examined in the rapidly growing chick. Pyridoxine-deficient animals had tibias of reduced dry weight and cortical thickness. Histomorphometry demonstrated a disproportionately high eroded surface, lower amount of osteoid tissue and reduced mineralized trabecular width. Anterior-posterior radiographs of the tibiotarsometatarsal joint showed reduced secondary ossification centres and coarse trabeculation. Decalcified metaphyseal cartilage showed irregular trabeculas and a markedly reduced amount of Fast-green counterstain matrix suggesting that there is less collagen present and in turn less availability for matrix to be laid down for later calcification. Plasma activity of the bone alkaline phosphatase isoenzyme (EC 3.1.3.1) was decreased. Plasma Ca and PO4 levels did not vary. The present bone study referring to a pseudo-lathyritic state in which collagen maturation is not completely achieved supports the hypothesis that pyridoxine is an essential nutrient for the connective tissue matrix.

Two field cases of field rickets in turkey poults were studied. The primary observation was lameness, and the sole necropsy finding of significance was hypomineralization of bone. This finding was confirmed radiographically; thin cortices and wide growth plates were noted. Microscopically, there was failure of osteoid mineralization, failure of orderly progression from cartilage to bone in the growth plate, the formation of bony trabeculae perpendicular to the long axis of the bone, and fibroplasia in marrow spaces. On a routine serological screen for mycoplasma and several viruses, there were no differences between affected and normal poults from the same flock.

A morphological, radiological and pathological study of avian capital femoral dyschondroplasia was conducted. At post mortem examination a widened and, or, shortened femoral neck was an indication that dyschondroplasia of the caput femoris may have been present. Metaphyseal defects of varying severity were readily detected in radiographs and on sectioning the proximal femur. Increased growth plate thickness was due to abnormally thick transitional and, in some cases, proliferating/maturing zones. In a proportion of cases eosinophilic scars and vascular canal occlusion occurred with adjacent matrix changes. Findings support the concept that patent growth plate vascular canals are a prerequisite for normal chondrocyte hypertrophy.

1. The occurrence of mineralised tendons in the wing and pelvic limb of the domestic fowl was studied radiographically in adults and in growing birds from hatching to 182 d. 2. Mineralised tendons were found to occur in all the adults in the dorsal and plantar tarsometatarsus and variably in the caudal tibiotarsus, cranial metacarpus and caudal antebrachium. In the cranial tibiotarsus a mineralised tendon was detected in two cockerels only. 3. Mineralisation was detected from 91 d onwards, at first in tendons in the plantar tarsometatarsus and cranial metacarpus and later in the dorsal tarsometatarsus. The mineralised tendons found in adults at other sites were not found during the growing period studied.

A technique for early detection of tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) in live broilers was developed using the Lixiscope, a hand-held, real-time skeletal imaging device. The Lixiscope utilizes 125I gamma energy (27 keV), which is converted to electrons and then to visible energy, for imaging by way of an output phosphor or electron-to-photon conversion. Image amplication is 45,000 to 50,000 times, and image resolution is 4.2 line pairs per millimeter. The left and right tibiotarsi of the parent stock of male broiler breeder chickens were examined at 3, 4, 6, and 8 weeks of age. The images readily allowed for the detection of TD. A scoring system was established to assess severity of TD and was confirmed accurate as correlated with direct radiography and macroscopic examination at necropsy. This technique offers a quick, non-invasive, early detection of TD in broilers. The equipment is portable and can be used in field selection procedures.

Skeletal development of broilers of two lines of the Hybro Compact strain was compared to the skeletal development of leghorns. Environment, management, and feeds were identical for comparable groups of broilers and leghorns. Half of the broilers (representing both lines) and half of the leghorns were given a high energy feed, while the other half of the birds of both breeds were given a low energy feed. No great difference in feed conversion between broilers and leghorns was found. The broilers consumed more feed and increased their body weight and volume of the tibia almost twice as fast as the leghorns. The difference in longitudinal growth of the tibia of the birds of the two breeds was much less evident. Locomotor disturbances (leg weakness) were common in the broilers, and in the majority of the cases the problems were caused by skeletal deformities. The leghorns were almost completely free of skeletal deformities and had no locomotor disturbances. Likewise, dyschondroplasia was not found in the leghorns, while it was common in the broilers. Most of the skeletal deformities in the broilers were explained as the result of mechanic-traumatic factors, acting on a rapidly remodeling skeleton, apparently of insufficient strength for the heavy body weight. Dyschondroplasia, on the other hand, was considered to be caused by a generalized factor governing growth. Basic histologic differences between broilers and leghorns already at an age of 7 days supported this theory. It was concluded that both leg deformities and dyschondroplasia in the broiler are man made problems, caused by genetic selection for characteristics of economic importance, without enough consideration to function and health of the animals.

Twenty-five broiler chickens, which habitually adopted a unilateral weight-bearing stance, were studied. In all cases the contralateral limb was held free of the ground, normally as a result of gross valgus angulation of the intertarsal joint. The left pelvic limb was more frequently weight-bearing than the right which suggests that a pattern of limb dominance may occur in broiler fowls. Metaphyseal lesions, suggestive of dyschondroplasia, were more common in the load-bearing limb. This suggests that altered load-bearing or posture can initiate or exacerbate dyschondroplasia in susceptible birds. The load-bearing limb also showed altered patterns of bone torsion. These findings are similar to those observed in induced physeal (growth plate) osteochondrosis in mammals and the pathogenesis of lesions is likely to be similar.

Radiographs revealed defective endochondral ossification in proximal femora of 52 lame broilers. Cartilage retention either involved epiphyseal cartilage close to the articular surface or growth plate cartilage (dyschondroplasia). In at least seven birds proximal femoral lesions were the only abnormalities detected which could have caused lameness. In cases of moderate or severe cartilage retention, fracture lines traversed necrotic cartilage to undermine part or all of the femoral head. Evidence of reparative fibrosis was seen with augmentation of metaphyseal trabeculae by woven bone apposition. Foveal blood vessels aided repair by re-establishing a new ossification centre but in many cases attempts at repair were inadequate.

Scoliosis developed in 55 per cent of sexually mature birds (68 per cent of male and 46 per cent of female birds) in a highly inbred line of chickens originally produced from white Leghorns. The curve could first be detected at five to six weeks of age and progressed until spontaneous fusion of the thoracic vertebrae occurred. Studies of these chickens indicated that abnormalities of growth and development of the spine are not the primary cause of the scoliosis. Preliminary studies of the paravertebral musculature also indicated that simple muscle imbalance is not responsible for the curve. Initial studies of collagen extracted from the scoliotic line of chickens showed it to be more soluble than similar collagen extracted from white Leghorn controls.

Seventy broilers, culled because of angular or torsional limb deformities, were studied. Findings supported the concept that a pattern of limb dominance occurs in broilers with the right pelvic limb being more likely to show severe deformity. Estimates of bone torsion revealed that angular and torsional deformities can occur independently and that the whole limb should be examined. The term 'twisted leg', which is commonly used to describe limb deformities in broilers, is considered descriptively inadequate. Abnormal diaphyseal curvature was frequently identified and in most cases there was evidence of physeal osteochondrosis. It is suggested that the diaphyseal cortical hypertrophy seen in such bones is adaptive.

"Windswept deformities", involving valgus angulation of one intertarsal joint and varus angulation in the contralateral limb, were identified in 75 of 120 turkeys and 24 of 120 broiler fowls which had been culled because of lameness, so that windswept limb angulation was more common in turkeys than broilers. A proportion of cases can be more accurately described as unilateral intertarsal varus deformities with physiological valgus angulation of the contralateral limb. In other cases, marked angulation of one limb probably results from adoption of an altered posture secondary to deformity of the contralateral limb. No correlation was found between abnormal bone torsion, limb angulation and dyschondroplastic lesions. In broilers, almost 70 per cent of windswept limbs with 20 degrees or more intertarsal angulation showed physeal disturbance in the distal tibiotarsus or proximal transometatarsus or both. This finding supports the concept that windswept deformities are commonly associated with physeal lesions but whether the two conditions are causally related is uncertain.

Two strains of broiler chickens selected for a high and a low incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia were fed a standard broiler starter ration with and without added chloride. Development of tibial dyschondroplasia was studied by radiography and serial necropsies. Lesions of tibial dyschondroplasia were mild in the low-incidence strain, regardless of ratio. The defect was more severe in the high-incidence strain and most severe in those birds fed the high-chloride ration. An abnormal thickening of the growth plate was apparent in the high-incidence strain as early as 2 weeks of age and became progressively more severe with age. No significant differences were noted in serum calcium, phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase, pCO2, or bone ash between strains of birds or between birds of the same strain fed different rations. Birds fed the high-chloride ration had a higher serum chloride and a lower serum bicarbonate and blood pH than birds on the standard ration.

Sixty-seven Broadbreasted White Turkeys, 4 to 137 days old, were included in the investigation. Some were normal, while others were limping, and some had bowed legs. Immediately after destruction of the birds, the arteries of the legs were injected with Colorpaque, using a technique introduced by the author. The proximal part of one or both tibiae were examined radiographically, macroscopically, and microscopically. The microscopic examination included histology, microangiography, and microradiography. The normal development and morphology of the proximal tibia is presented. Thereafter an account is given of development and morphology of the tibia with dyschondroplastic lesions (retained cartilages). It was found that 39 of the 67 birds had some degree of tibial dyschondroplasia. The retained cartilage was seen in the posteromedial part of the proximal tibial metaphysis. The growth plate both of the normal and abnormal birds consisted of 3 layers of cells in order from the epiphysis--the one of proliferating cells, the one of transitional cells, and the one of hypertrophied cells. A main feature in tibial dyschondroplasia is accumulation of transitional cells, which do not have a vascular supply. By microangiographic means it was possible to demonstrate that the retained cartilage is surrounded by numerous vessels, which apparently cannot get into the cartilage. The reason for the loss of normal differentiation of the cartilage cells and concomitant disturbance of the endochondral ossification is obscure. It is speculated that changes on an ultrastructural and biochemical level are responsible for the pathologic condition. When the retained cartilage reaches a certain size, degenerative changes, necrosis, and fissures occur. Complete healing of the lesion was not seen in any of the birds, but partial disappearance of the proximal or distal part of the retained cartilage took place in some birds. It was concluded that the present investigation has shed light on the development and morphology of tibial dyschondroplasia, but it has also brought forward a number of questions about etiology. There seems to be good reason to believe that dyschondroplasia in the turkey is of similar nature as dyschondroplasia in broilers and osteochondrosis in domestic mammals.

Tibiae from normal broiler chickens were compared with those from broilers displaying twisted leg in an attempt to develop a pattern recognition for the disorder. Qualitative differences were determined using conventional radiography, and quantitative differences were determined using sequential morphometry. Sequential radiography revealed that twisted leg developed from a slight deviation or torsion of the distal tibiae. Progressive bowing of the tibiae and compensatory thickening of the cortex on the weight-bearing side were characteristic radiographic features of twisted leg and were most likely a functional adaptation to the disorder. Sequential morphometry suggests that the development of twisted leg in broilers may be related to a structural abnormality in the distal tibiae, namely shallow distal condyle grooves. Shallow distal condyle grooves may predispose the distal tibiae to a slight displacement of the gastrocnemius tendon and hence uneven strain on the distal condyles. Other changes in tibial morphology (diameter at midshaft, condylar width, cortical thickness) appeared to be functional adaptations to the deformation rather than the primary cause.

Of 104 lame broilers, 12 birds with femoral trochanteric abnormalities were identified by post-mortem and radiographic examination. Defects occurred in ossification of either the trochanteric zenith or its medial aspect. Lesions were identified as dyschondroplasia, osteochondrosis or osteochondrosis dissecans affecting the articular surface of the femoral trochanter. In the absence of concomitant musculoskeletal disease, degrees of lameness can be attributed to trochanteric lesions. Breaches in the medial trochanteric bone plate permit granulation tissue repair of the articular surface. This repair process, however, did not compensate for the loss of articular surface contour and the junction of reparative and normal tissue may be prone to subsequent degeneration.

The material consisted of 2,950 broilers of the variety Hybro Compact of two lines. An equal number of birds of both lines were given either a high energy feed (H) or a low energy feed (L), containing all nutrients known to be required by broilers. During the first 3 weeks, H and L starter feeds were given and thereafter H and L finishing feeds. At 21, 35, and 45 days of age, the birds were weighed in groups, and feed conversion calculated. At 21 days of age, the frequency of crooked toes and swollen hocks was registered. Birds were taken from each group for necropsy at regular intervals. Both clinically normal birds and those with locomotor disturbances were selected for necropsy, including radiographic examination. With the exception of 240 birds, which were kept for a long-term study, the birds on the H feed were slaughtered at 42 days of age and the ones on the L feed at 49 days of age. The long-term birds were slaughtered at regular intervals, weighed, and necropsied. The last birds were slaughtered at 134 days of age. A large number of skeletal lesions were found. They were: Twisted legs, slipped tendons, crooked toes, bowing of the proximal tibia, dyschondroplasia at different sites, fracture of the fibula, deformity of the spine, deviated sternum (with breast blisters), arthritis, and osteomyelitis. Leg weakness was found to be almost synonymous with skeletal deformities. Other causes were rare. The normal development and morphology of the skeleton and the morphology of tibial dyschondroplasia were the same as those previously described in the turkey. Dyschondroplasia was found not only in the proximal tibia but also in the distal tibia, proximal tarsometatarsus, proximal and distal femur, and to some extent also in the costochondral junction. Tibial dyschondroplasia was more common in the birds on the H feed than in the birds on the L feed. Hence, tibial dyschondroplasia was correlated with rapid growth. The other skeletal lesions did not differ in incidence in the birds on the H and L feeds. It was postulated that greater difference in growth rate is necessary for a demonstration of a possible correlation between skeletal deformities and growth rate.

White Leghorn cockerels, 11 to 22 days old, were inoculated each with a single oral dose of 4-5 X 10(4) sporulated oocysts of Eimeria tenella. Radiographic study of urinary backflow in infected chickens injected with sodium iothalamate subcutaneously indicated that retrograde movement of ceca was impaired particularly 7, 10, and 14 days after infection. No inflow was noted 7 days after infection when barium sulfate was inoculated into cloaca. Weight of cecal contents examined 7 days after infection was significantly smaller than uninfected control. Number of cecal feces was counted every 24 h beginning 4 through 14 days after infection. The counts in infected birds were significantly fewer than uninfected control 8, 9, and 10 days after infection. Outflow of cecal contents was studied in chickens surgically injected with barium sulfate into cecum 7 days after infection. Radiographic study indicated that most of uninfected control ceca excreted or evacuated the medium between 10 and 24 h after injection, while a few infected birds cleared ceca during the same period.

A group of Leghorn and a group of broiler chicks were reared from day old. At two weeks old a metallic marker was placed unilaterally in the mid-diaphysis of the femur, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus of every chick. After the operation the limbs were radiographed. After a period of growth the birds were killed and the radiographs repeated. Measurements from the radiographs enabled the calculation of the rate of growth at the bone extremities. There were metaphyseal defects indicative of dyschondroplasia present in some of the broiler bone extremities, these bones were considered as a separate group. When the Leghorn and normal broilers were compared there was a significant reduction in the proportion of growth in the proximal tibiotarsus of the broilers. The dyschondroplastic bone extremities in broilers demonstrated a reduction in the proportional growth rate compared with normal extremities.