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In Graeco-Roman times in the Lower-Egyptian Fayoum region, a painted portrait was traditionally placed over the face of a deceased individual. These mummy portraits show considerable inter-individual diversity. This suggests that those portraits were created separately for each individual. In the present study, we investigated a completely wrapped young infant mummy with a typical mummy portrait by whole body CT analysis. This was used to obtain physical information on the infant and provided the basis for a virtual face reconstruction in order to compare it to the mummy portrait. We identified the mummy as a 3-4 years old male infant that had been prepared according to the typical ancient Egyptian mummification rites. It most probably suffered from a right-sided pulmonary infection which may also be the cause of death. The reconstructed face showed considerable similarities to the portrait, confirming the portrait's specificity to this individual. However, there are some differences between portrait and face. The portrait seems to show a slightly older individual which may be due to artistic conventions of that period., Competing Interests: One of the authors (LF) is an employee of the commercial company 3-D-Construct, Cologne. The funder provided support in the form of salaries for this authors (LF), but did not have any additional role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific role of this author is articulated in the “Author contributions” section. There are no other relevant declarations relating to employment, consultancy,patents, products in development, or marketed products, etc. Furthermore, we declare, that this commercial affiliation does not alter our adherence to PLOS One policies on sharing data and material.

There is evidence for a tendency for European portrait paintings to have the head oriented so that the left side of the face is visible more than the right side. This is particularly the case for female sitters. There is evidence that the left side of the face shows emotion more than the right side does, so it has been proposed that there is a tendency for artists or sitters to want to show more of the emotionality of the sitter. It is shown here that the left-side tendency varies by date. In two studies, large samples were drawn from European gallery collections (study 1) and the National Portrait Gallery in London (study 2). The studies showed a strong left side tendency before 1600, absence of the tendency in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and some recurrence of it in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, modulated by changing gender differences. These findings show that cultural, historical, or art-historical factors are likely to be involved in determining tendencies in head orientation as well as psychological ones.

To the visitor to Windsor Castle, the Thomas Lawrence portraits in the Waterloo Chamber represent the most important contributors to the military defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte, by British, Prussian, Russian and Austrian forces at the Battle of Waterloo. Nevertheless, only few individuals realise that a Greek physician, Count Ioannis Capodistrias, a native of the island of Corfu, stands among these leading personalities as a diplomat, the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, who contributed remarkably to European unity in the early nineteenth century and as a statesman ('Governor' of Greece) with a tragic end to his life, after establishing a Greek State practically from ruins.

The story of how William Withering's portrait painted in Birmingham in 1792 ended up in the Swedish Nationalmuseum 139 years later., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Association of Physicians. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The author discusses several of Albrecht Dürer's selfportraits. In some portraits his eyes are straight and in some others a divergent squint is present. Did Dürer do this on purpose or whas the squint indeed intermittently present? Analysis of the portrait of his mother gave the explanation.

The discovery was recently announced in the scientific literature of a self-caricature of the great Renaissance artist and genius of human anatomy, Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), concealed in a drawing from 1525. This drawing is held in the collection of the British Museum in London, England. In it, the artist portrayed the Marchesa di Pescara, Vittoria Colonna (1490-1547). The present article considers evidence that Michelangelo may have depicted himself in another portrait of Vittoria Colonna, dated to approximately 1522, which is currently in the collection of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England. This concealed silhouetted figure displays physical features strikingly similar to those depicted in portraits of Michelangelo by his contemporaries, and in the description of the artist by Michelangelo's biographer, Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574): the large body, the shape of the face, the beard and the flattened nose. In this context, the present article could serve to facilitate analyses of the physical form and even of the state of health (from 1522) of one of the foremost anatomists of the Renaissance. Clin. Anat., 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Sir Alexander Morison's The Physiognomy of Mental Diseases and the original art work that formed the basis of the book have not had the scholarly attention they deserve. The published book and the commissioned portraits have not been studied in any detail. Historians have tended to offer cursory assessments that have reflected their own preconceived ideas rather than properly engaging with the material. This is a pity because Morison's work is a rich source that tells us much about the history of psychiatry. The pictures and text give us a glimpse into the world of the asylum and that of the patient. Although we see the patient through the eyes of the artist and Dr Morison, they do emerge as individuals. The accompanying texts reflect the psychiatric approach of the time and reveal contemporary notions of diagnosis, aetiology and treatment. Morison's work can also be located in the history of ideas about physiognomy. He himself was particularly influenced by Jean-Étienne-Dominique Esquirol, and Morison's work, in turn, influenced WAF Browne. These papers will outline Morison's career and consider in detail his book on The Physiognomy of Mental Diseases., Competing Interests: AB is the History and Medical Humanities Editor of the Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. This paper has undergone the usual peer review process; AB was not involved.

The aim of this study was to analyze eyebrow shapes in portraits of Chinese empresses of Ming and Qing dynasties.The frontal portraits of 20 Ming empresses and 24 of Qing in which the eye and eyebrows were identifiable were measured and analyzed. The arch shape did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between Ming and Qing. The head-up type (66.6%) was significantly more common (P < 0.001), than tail-up (13.6%), horizontal (13.6%), and arched (6.8%). The brow arches of Ming and Qing empresses were classified as 5 arch types: L (Lamas), A (Anastasia), H (Hwang), M (Empress Ma), and D (Empress Du). In Ming, type-H (45.0%) was the most frequent, followed by type-D (25.0%). In Qing, type-L (45.8%) was the most frequent, followed by type-H (16.7%) and type-D (16.7%). The relative eyebrow width (REW) of Ming and Qing was 1.59 ± 0.28. The REW of Qing (1.63 ± 0.30) and Ming (1.55 ± 0.26) did not differ significantly. The relative medial height (RMH, 1.05 ± 0.20) and relative lateral height (RLH; 1.05 ± 0.21) were the same, and greater than the relative mid-pupillary height (RPH; 0.84 ± 0.19; P < 0.001). The RMH of Ming (1.09 ± 0.24) and Qing (1.02 ± 0.16) did not differ significantly. The RLH likewise did not differ significantly between Ming (1.01 ± 0.21) and Qing (1.08 ± 0.22). However, the RPH of Ming (0.91 ± 0.21) was significantly (P = 0.042) greater than Qing (0.79 ± 0.17). The relative brow thickness (RBT) of Qing (0.13 ± 0.06) was significantly (p = 0.033) greater than Ming (0.17 ± 0.06). The RBT of Ming and Qing was 0.15 ± 0.06 and increased with time (P = 0.023).The results of this study may be useful for brow lift or the tattooing.

The first of several pivotal moments leading to current understanding of human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) occurred in 1959 when veterinary pathologist W.J. Hadlow first recognized several similarities between scrapie-a slow infection of sheep caused by an unusual infectious agent-and kuru, a fatal exotic neurodegenerative disease affecting only people of a single language group in the remote mountainous interior of New Guinea, described two years earlier by D.C. Gajdusek and V. Zigas. Based on the knowledge of scrapie, Gajdusek, C.J. Gibbs, Jr., and M.P. Alpers soon initiated efforts to transmit kuru by inoculating kuru brain tissue into non-human primates, that-although requiring several years-ultimately proved successful. In the same year that Hadlow first proposed that kuru and scrapie might have similar etiology, I. Klatzo noted that kuru's histopathology resembled that of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), another progressive fatal neurodegenerative disease of unknown etiology that A.M. Jakob had first described in 1921. Gajdusek and colleagues went on to demonstrate that not only the more common sporadic form of CJD but also familial CJD and a generally similar familial brain disease (Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome) were also transmissible, first to non-human primates and later to other animals. (Other investigators later transmitted an even rarer brain disease, fatal familial insomnia, to animals.) Iatrogenic CJD (spread by human pituitary-derived hormones and tissue grafts) was also transmitted to animals. Much later, in 1996, a new variant of CJD was attributed to human infection with the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy; vCJD itself caused an iatrogenic TSE spread by blood transfusion (and probably by a human-plasma-derived clotting factor). Starting in the 1930s, the scrapie agent was found to have a unique constellation of physical properties (marked resistance to inactivation by chemicals, heat and radiation), eventually interpreted as suggesting that it might be an unconventional self-replicating pathogen based on protein and containing no nucleic acid. The work of S.B. Prusiner led to the recognition in the early 1980s that a misfolded form of a ubiquitous normal host protein was usually if not always detectable in tissues containing TSE agents, greatly facilitating the diagnosis and TSEs and understanding their pathogenesis. Prusiner proposed that the TSE agent was likely to be composed partly if not entirely of the abnormal protein, for which he coined the term "prion" protein and "prion" for the agent. Expression of the prion protein by animals-while not essential for life-was later found to be obligatory to infect them with TSEs, and a variety of mutations in the protein clearly tracked with TSEs in families, explaining the autosomal dominant pattern of disease and confirming a central role for the protein in pathogenesis. Prusiner's terminology and the prion hypothesis came to be widely though not universally accepted. A popular corollary proposal, that prions arise by spontaneous misfolding of normal prion protein leading to sporadic cases of CJD, BSE, and scrapie, is more problematic and may serve to discourage continued search for environmental sources of exposure to TSE agents., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Biographers have largely ignored Louis Pasteur's many and varied connections with art and artists. This article is the third in a series of the authors' studies of Pasteur's friendships with artists. This research project has uncovered data that enlarge the great medical chemist's biography, throwing new light on a variety of topics including his work habits, his social life, his artistic sensibilities, his efforts to lobby on behalf of his artist friends, his relationships to their patrons and to his own patrons, and his use of works of art to foster his reputation as a leader in French medical science. In their first article, the authors examined his unique working relationship with the Finnish painter Albert Edelfelt and the creation of the famous portrait of Pasteur in his laboratory in the mid-1880s. A second study documented his especially warm friendship with three French artists who came from Pasteur's home region, the Jura, or from neighbouring Alsace. The present study explores Pasteur's friendships with Max Claudet and Paul Dubois, both of whom created important representations of Pasteur. These friendships and others with patrons reveal an active pursuit of patronage and reputation building from 1876 into the late 1880s. Yet, although Pasteur actively used public art to raise his status, it becomes clear in these stories that for Pasteur beauty was an ideal and art a pleasure for its own sake.

Background: The aim of this paper is to analyze the aesthetic characteristics of the human females' gaze using anthropometry and to present an artistic model to represent it: "The Frame Concept." In this model, the eye fissure represents a painting, and the most peripheral shadows around it represent the frame of this painting. The narrower the frame, the more aesthetically pleasing and youthful the gaze appears., Materials and Method: This study included a literature review of the features that make the gaze appear attractive. Photographs of models with attractive gazes were examined, and old photographs of patients were compared to recent photographs. The frame ratio was defined by anthropometric measurements of modern portraits of twenty consecutive Miss World winners. The concept was then validated for age and attractiveness across centuries by analysis of modern female photographs and works of art acknowledged for portraying beautiful young and older women in classical paintings., Results: The frame height inversely correlated with attractiveness in modern female portrait photographs. The eye fissure frame ratio of modern idealized female portraits was similar to that of beautiful female portraits idealized by classical artists. In contrast, the eye fissure frames of classical artists' mothers' portraits were significantly wider than those of beautiful younger women., Conclusion: The Frame Concept is a valid artistic tool that provides an understanding of both the aesthetic and aging characteristics of the female periorbital region, enabling the practitioner to plan appropriate aesthetic interventions., Level of Evidence Iii: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the A3 online Instructions to Authors. www.springer.com/00266 .

Biographers have largely ignored Louis Pasteur's many and varied connections with art and artists. This article is the second in a series of the authors' studies of Pasteur's friendships with artists. This research project has uncovered data that enlarge the great medical chemist's biography, throwing new light on a variety of topics including his work habits, his social life, his artistic sensibilities, his efforts to lobby on behalf of his artist friends, his relationships to their patrons and to his own patrons, and his use of works of art to foster his reputation as a leader in French medical science. In a prior article, the authors examined his unique working relationship with the Finnish painter Albert Edelfelt and the creation of the famous portrait of Pasteur in his laboratory in the mid-1880s. The present study documents his especially warm friendship with three French artists who came from Pasteur's home region, the Jura, or from neighboring Alsace. A forthcoming study gives an account of his friendships with Max Claudet and Paul Dubois, both of whom made important images of Pasteur, and it offers further illustrations of his devotion to the fine arts.

The Mexican artist Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) is one of the most celebrated artists of the 20th century. Although famous for her colorful self-portraits and associations with celebrities Diego Rivera and Leon Trotsky, less known is the fact that she had lifelong chronic pain. Frida Kahlo developed poliomyelitis at age 6 years, was in a horrific trolley car accident in her teens, and would eventually endure numerous failed spinal surgeries and, ultimately, limb amputation. She endured several physical, emotional, and psychological traumas in her lifetime, yet through her art, she was able to transcend a life of pain and disability. Of her work, her self-portraits are conspicuous in their capacity to convey her life experience, much of which was imbued with chronic pain. Signs and symptoms of chronic neuropathic pain and central sensitization of nociceptive pathways are evident when analyzing her paintings and medical history. This article uses a narrative approach to describe how events in the life of this artist contributed to her chronic pain. The purpose of this article is to discuss Frida Kahlo's medical history and her art from a modern pain sciences perspective, and perhaps to increase our understanding of the pain experience from the patient's perspective., (© 2017 American Physical Therapy Association.)

A portrait of uncertain origin recently came to light which, after extensive research and examination, was shown to be that rarest of things: a newly discovered Leonardo da Vinci painting entitled La Bella Principessa. This research presents a new illusion which is similar to that identified in the Mona Lisa; La Bella Principessa's mouth appears to change slant depending on both the Viewing Distance and the Level of Blur applied to a digital version of the portrait. Through a series of psychophysics experiments, it was found that a perceived change in the slant of the La Bella Principessa's mouth influences her expression of contentment thus generating an illusion that we have coined the "uncatchable smile". The elusive quality of the Mona Lisa's smile has been previously reported (Science, 290 (2000) 1299) and so the existence of a similar illusion in a portrait painted prior to the Mona Lisa becomes more interesting. The question remains whether Leonardo da Vinci intended this illusion. In any case, it can be argued that the ambiguity created adds to the portrait's allure., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Historians of medicine--and even Louis Pasteur's biographers--have paid little attention to his close relationship with the Finnish artist Albert Edelfelt. A new look at Edelfelt's letters to his mother, written in Swedish and never quoted at length in English, reveals important aspects of Pasteur's working habits and personality. By understanding the active collaboration through which this very famous portrait was made, we also discover unnoticed things in the painting itself, gain a new appreciation of its original impact on the French public's image of science, and better understand its enduring influence on the portrayal of medicine in the art and the popular culture of many countries even to the present day.