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Theoretical models for the evolution of inducible anti-predator defenses predict that there should be fitness costs associated with the defense, otherwise it should be permanent. Thus, in the absence of predators and with limited resources, defended individuals are expected to be outcompeted by individuals lacking the costly defense. Crucian carp, Carassius carassius, increase in body depth in response to chemical stimuli from piscivorous fish, and the deeper body constitutes a morphological defense against gape-limited piscivores. Here, we have performed a field experiment investigating effects of population density on the relative competitive performance of shallow-bodied and deep-bodied crucian carp. We assigned groups of six individually marked fish (the 'focal' individuals) of either morph into enclosures with either low or high crucian carp density, and monitored changes in body mass, length, and body depth of these fish for 4 mo. In addition, we determined sex, and final liver and gonadal mass, of all focal fish. At high population density, there was a reduction in food resources (zooplankters), which resulted in reduced gonad mass, reduced gonadosomatic indices, and reduced growth in fish of both morphs. Unexpectedly, the relative allocation to livers was higher at high density. There was no difference in body mass gain between morphs at the low density, whereas at the high density shallow-bodied fish gained twice as much body mass as deep-bodied fish. Hence, when predators were absent and food resources were limited, deep-bodied individuals suffered a substantial cost when competing with shallow-bodied conspecifics. This study verifies the theoretical prediction that an inducible defense results in fitness costs in the absence of predators. Further, as we found no measurable disadvantage of the deep-bodied morphology at high food availability but a strong disadvantage under intense competition for food, our results also demonstrate the importance of relating defense costs to levels of intraspecific competition. Key words: antipredator; body size; Carassius carassius; competition; cost; density dependence; field-enclosure experiment; fish; inducible defense; phenotypic plasticity; resource allocation; Sweden., INTRODUCTION Predation is an important selective force in most habitats. Through direct, lethal effects, predators may have profound effects on abundance and size structure of prey populations and on species [...]

We present two laboratory experiments designed to show how cannibalism and its effects on population numbers and size structure vary in response to density, size, and food manipulations in larvae of the dragonfly Epitheca cynosura. Because young larvae of this species interact at very high densities after hatching asynchronously from clumps of egg masses, our efforts focused on these early stages. In one experiment, we varied the combination of sizes (instars) and the presence of food for 233 pairs of early-instar larvae. Cannibalism was uncommon if larvae were of the same instar (only 2.4% of such pairs exhibited cannibalism), frequent (53%) if larvae differed by one instar, and certain (100%) if a two-instar size difference was present. The rate at which cannibalism increased with size differences between larvae was greater when food was absent than it was when food was provided. In a second experiment, we subjected replicate cohorts of newly hatched dragonflies to manipulations of hatching synchrony, initial density, and food availability. Asynchronous hatching over 25 d produced a broad size distribution apparently conducive to cannibalism, whereas synchronous hatching over 3 d initially precluded cannibalism. As a result, strong density-dependent mortality only appeared following the asynchronous hatch. For high-density, asynchronous treatments, cannibalism significantly reduced size variation and tightened size distributions over the course of development. Survivors from high-density treatments were significantly larger than were low-density survivors. More abundant food allowed larvae to reach larger sizes, but did not improve survival. Survival was affected mainly by the density and size distribution of larvae. These results suggest that cannibalism was more important than exploitative competition for food in determining the size and survival of dragonflies in the laboratory. We conclude that when juveniles hatch asynchronously in close proximity, cannibalism can: (1) contribute to population regulation by imposing greater per capita mortality at high densities, and (2) increase population synchrony by exerting size-specific mortality on smaller individuals throughout development. Key words: Epitheca cynosura; Odonata; population regulation; population synchrony., INTRODUCTION Ecologists generally recognize cannibalism as a density-dependent mechanism having two main population-level effects: it stabilizes population numbers and alters size distributions (Fox 1975a, Polis 1981, Dong and Polis 1992). [...]