Search

Calcium and nitric oxide (NO) are two important biological messengers. Increasing evidence indicates that Ca2+ and NO work together in mediating responses to pathogenic microorganisms and microbe-associated molecular patterns. Ca2+ fluxes were recognized to account for NO production, whereas evidence gathered from a number of studies highlights that NO is one of the key messengers mediating Ca2+ signaling. Here, we present a concise description of the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the cross talk between Ca2+ and NO in plant cells exposed to biotic stress. Particular attention will be given to the involvement of cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels and Ca2+ sensors. Notably, we provide new evidence that calmodulin might be regulated at the posttranslational level by NO through S-nitrosylation. Furthermore, we report original transcriptomic data showing that NO produced in response to oligogalacturonide regulates the expression of genes related to Ca2+ signaling. Deeper insight into the molecules involved in the interplay between Ca2+ and NO not only permits a better characterization of the Ca2+ signaling system but also allows us to further understand how plants respond to pathogen attack.

affiche, résumé publié; Iron is an essential element for plants and microbes. However, in most cultivated soils, the concentration of iron available for these living organisms is very low since its solubility is controlled by stable hydroxides, oxyhydroxides and oxides. The high demand for iron by plants and microorganisms in the rhizosphere together with its low availability in soils leads to a strong competition for this nutrient among living organisms. To face this competition, plants and microorganisms have developed active strategies of iron uptake. In non graminaceous plants (strategy I), iron uptake relies on acidification and reduction of Fe+++ in Fe++ which incorporated in the roots by iron transporters. Active iron uptake by microorganisms relies on siderophores showing high affinity for iron. We have previously shown that plants of Arabidopsis thaliana (strategy I) supplemented with Fe-pyoverdine had a higher iron content than those supplemented Fe- EDTA [1]. Iron from pyoverdine was not incorporated through the major iron transporter IRT1 as indicated by the similar iron content of the wild-type plant and IRT1 mutant knockout iron transporter IRT1. Furthermore, pyoverdine was shown to be incorporated as indicated by its presence in planta based on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay measurement of pyoverdine and on 15N of 15N-pyoverdine. Taken together, these observations suggest that iron from Fe-pyoverdine was not incorporated in planta through the strategy I. In the present, we explored the possible incorporation of iron from pyoverdine at the cellular level. For that purpose, on Arabidopsis when cultivated in the presence of Fe-EDTA (50µM) or Fe-pyoverdine (50µM), we analyzed the immunolocalization of pyoverdine in roots by confocal microscopy and performed ultrastructural studies with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Plants were cultivated in vitro with these chelates during seven days. Immunolabeling were performed with pyoverdine antibody as primary antibody and fluorescent secondary antibody for confocal microscopy and colloidal gold coupled to secondary antibody for immunogold labeling by TEM. Observations with confocal microscopy clearly indicated the presence of pyoverdine in fresh tissue sections. This immunolocalization revealed the presence of pyoverdine in root apoplasmic space. Observations with TEM showed the more abundant presence of vesicles in root apoplasm of plants when cultured with Fe-pyoverdine than with Fe-EDTA (Figure 1). Despite that pyoverdine immunogold labeling of roots sections did not allow to reveal the formal presence of pyoverdine in these vesicles, the present results suggest that the incorporation of Fe- pyoverdine might rely on endocytosis.

Automated rRNA intergenic spacer analysis (ARISA) was used to characterise bacterial (B-ARISA) and fungal (F-ARISA) communities from different soil types. The 16S-23S intergenic spacer region from the bacterial rRNA operon was amplified from total soil community DNA for B-ARISA. Similarly, the two internal transcribed spacers and the 5.8S rRNA gene (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) from the fungal rRNA operon were amplified from total soil community DNA for F-ARISA. Universal fluorescence-labeled primers were used for the PCRs, and fragments of between 200 and 1,200 bp were resolved on denaturing polyacrylamide gels by use of an automated sequencer with laser detection. Methodological (DNA extraction and PCR amplification) and biological (inter- and intrasite) variations were evaluated by comparing the number and intensity of peaks (bands) between electrophoregrams (profiles) and by multivariate analysis. Our results showed that ARISA is a high-resolution, highly reproducible technique and is a robust method for discriminating between microbial communities. To evaluate the potential biases in community description provided by ARISA, we also examined databases on length distribution of ribosomal intergenic spacers among bacteria (L. Ranjard, E. Brothier, and S. Nazaret, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:5334–5339, 2000) and fungi.

Wurzelpathogene zeigen bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Produktion von Zierpflanzen. Vor Allem in erdelosen Produktionssystemen unter Glas verursachen sie erhebliche Verluste und ihre Bekämpfung mit konventionellen Mitteln beinhaltet normalerweise ein hoher Einsatz an Pestiziden. Ein mehr nachhaltiger Gartenbau braucht alternative Methoden, um den Eintrag dieser Chemikalien zu vermeiden. Die Einführung arbuskulärer Mykorrhizapilze (AM Pilze) in das Produktionssystem könnte ein integraler Bestandteil einer entsprechenden Strategie sein. Mykorrhizierte Pflanzen zeigen generell eine erhöhte Resistenz gegenüber bodenbürtigen Pathogenen und Nematoden. Der Erfolg einer solchen Strategie ist allerdings nicht immer vorhersagbar und die Mechanismen hinter den schützenden Effekten der Mykorrhiza sind weitgehend unbekannt.Die Zierpflanze Petunia hybrida, die von verschiedenen Wurzelpathogenen befallen wird, wurde als Modell eingesetzt, um die Mykorrhiza-induzierte Resistenz (MIR) in erdelosen Substraten zu untersuchen. Nach der Überprüfung unterschiedlicher bodenbürtiger pathogener Pilze, die Schäden in der Anzucht verursachen, wurde Thielaviopsis basicola als Pathosystem ausgewählt. Drei AM Pilzisolate wurden bezüglich ihrer Fähigkeit untersucht, Petunien gegen T. basicola zu schützen. Nur das Isolat Glomus mosseae BEG 12 konnte sowohl Krankheitssymptome, wie auch die Ausbreitung des Pathogens in der Wurzel reduzieren. Experimente mit geteilten Wurzeln zeigten in Einklang mit früheren Ergebnissen einen systemisch schützenden Effekt, der auch in den nicht-mykorrhizierten Anteilen eines ansonsten mykorrhizierten Wurzelsystems induziert werden konnte. Der AM Pilz reduzierte darüber hinaus den Bedarf an Phosphatdüngung um das Fünffache. Eine erhöhte Toleranz gegenüber hohen Salzkonzentrationen im Substrat konnte allerdings nicht erreicht werden.Um Erkenntnisse über die molekularen Mechanismen der MIR gegenüber T. basicola in Petunienwurzeln zu gewinnen, wurden durch Analyse von Expressionsmuster der bekannten Pflanzenverteidigung unterschiedliche Hypothesen überprüft. Neun Gene aus dem Jasmonatweg der durch pflanzenwachstumsfördernde Bakterien induzierten systemischen Resistenz (ISR) und drei durch Salizylsäure induzierte Gene der systemisch erworbenen Resistenz (SAR) wurden ausgewählt. Die Expressionsprofile dieser Gene deuteten darauf hin, dass die lokale MIR keinen der beiden Signalwege mit einbezieht, während die systemische MIR sowohl Elemente der ISR wie auch der SAR einbindet.Die Aktivierung von sieben AM-regulierter Gene war von der T. basicola Infektion der Petunienwurzeln nicht betroffen, das Pathogen beeinträchtigt also nicht die symbiontischen Funktionen. Die Ergebnisse deuten außerdem darauf hin, dass der Teil des Symbioseprogramms, der AM-regulierte Verteidigungsgene betrifft, zur MIR beiträgt. Die Rolle dieser Gene bei dem Phänomen bedarf weiterer Untersuchungen, Petunia hybrida is an ornamental crop of high economic interest but diverse root pathogens can cause high ¬losses, especially in soilless greenhouse production systems, and their control by conventional methods implies an excessive use of pesticides. A more sustainable horticulture requires alternative methods to counter these chemical inputs. The introduction of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), known to reduce a number of root diseases in other plant species, into the production itinerary could form an integral part of an appropriate strategy. However, mycorrhizal effects against soil-borne pathogens are not always predictable and mechanisms behind the protective effects of mycorrhiza are largely unknown. In this context, mycorrhiza-induced resistance (MIR) was studied in P. hybrida in an inert soilless substrate, and the underlying mechanisms were investigated.After testing different soil-borne pathogenic fungi causing disease in petunia nursery production, Thielaviopsis basicola was selected as a model pathosystem. Three AM fungal species were evaluated for their ability to protect petunia against T. basicola; only Glomus mosseae BEG 12 turned out to reduce disease symptoms and pathogen spread in roots. Split root experiments showed that this protective effect was systemic and could be induced in non-mycorrhizal parts of mycorrhizal root systems, in agreement with previous studies in other plant pathosystems. The AM fungus, moreover, reduced the amount of phosphate fertiliser input fivefold, and provides tolerance against high salt concentrations in the horticultural substrate.In order to gain insight into molecular mechanisms involved in the MIR to T. basicola in petunia roots, hypotheses were tested by analysing the expression patterns of plant genes which are involved in various pathways of known plant defence responses. Nine genes related to the jasmonic acid pathway of induced systemic resistance (ISR) by plant growth promoting bacteria and three genes activated by salicylic acid, a key molecule in systemic acquired resistance (SAR), were selected. Expression profiles of these genes indicated that local MIR to T. basicola in petunia roots does not primarily involve either pathway, whilst systemic MIR in this pathosystem could include elements of both SAR and ISR. The activation of seven AM-related genes was unaffected by T. basicola infection of mycorrhizal petunia roots showing that the pathogen does not affect symbiotic functionality. Results suggest that the part of the symbiotic cell programme covering AM-regulated plant defence genes may constitutively contribute to the expression of local MIR; the role of such genes in this phenomenon merits further attention and analyses, Petunia hybrida est une plante ornementale d'intérêt économique élevé, mais diverses agents pathogènes racinaires peuvent causer des pertes dramatiques en serres, surtout chez les plantes produites dans les substrats artificiels. Leur contrôle par des méthodes conventionnelles implique un usage excessif de pesticides. Une horticulture plus durable exige des méthodes alternatives pour réduire ces intrants chimiques. L'introduction des mycorhizes à arbuscules (MA), connue pour réduire certaines maladies racinaires chez d'autres espèces végétales, dans l'itinéraire de production pourrait constituer une partie intégrante d'une stratégie appropriée. Cependant, les effets mycorhiziens contre les pathogènes racinaires ne sont pas toujours prévisibles et les mécanismes qui régulent les effets protecteurs des mycorhizes sont largement inconnues. Dans ce contexte, la résistance induite par la mycorhize (RIM) a été étudiée chez P. hybrida dans un substrat horticole artificiel, et les mécanismes impliqués ont été recherchés.Après avoir testé différents champignons racinaires provoquant des maladies lors des productions de pétunia en pépinière, Thielaviopsis basicola a été sélectionné pour le pathosystème modèle. Trois espèces fongiques MA ont été évaluées pour leur capacité à protéger le pétunia contre T. basicola; seul Glomus mosseae BEG 12 a réduit la propagation du pathogène dans les racines, ainsi que les symptômes de maladie. Des expériences basées sur un système « split-root » ont montré que cet effet protecteur est systémique et peut être induite dans les parties non-mycorhiziennes de systèmes racinaires mycorhizés, en accord avec des études d'autres pathosystèmes végétaux. Par ailleurs, l’activité du champignon MA réduit de cinq fois l'apport nécessaire en engrais phosphaté, mais améliore pas la tolérance du pétunia aux concentrations élevées du sel dans le substrat horticole.Afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires à la base de la RIM vis-à-vis T. basicola chez le pétunia, diverses hypothèses ont été testées en analysant l'expression de gènes impliqués dans différentes voies de défense des plantes. Neuf gènes liés à la voie de signalisation de l'acide jasmonique, impliquée dans la résistance systémique induite (RSI) par des bactéries favorisant la croissance végétale, et trois gènes activés par l'acide salicylique, une molécule clé dans la résistance systémique acquise (RSA), ont été sélectionnés. Le profil d'expression de ces gènes indique que ces deux voies ne sont pas principalement impliquées dans la RIM locale contre le pathogène, tandis que la RIM systémique pourrait inclure des éléments de la RSA et de la RSI. L’infection par T. basicola des racines mycorhizées de pétunia n’affecte pas l'activation de sept gènes liés à la MA, ce qui montre que l'agent pathogène n'influence pas la fonctionnalité symbiotique. Les résultats suggèrent que la partie du programme cellulaire symbiotique englobant les gènes de défense végétaux régulés par la MA pourraient constitutivement contribuer à l'expression de la RIM locale ; leur rôle dans ce phénomène mérite des études plus approfondies

absent

Cryptogein, which is secreted by the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea, is a proteinaceous elicitor of plant defense reactions that activates a set of signaling events leading to the hypersensitive response and to systemic acquired resistance. Although the early cytosolic signaling events induced by cryptogein are well described, the only nuclear events characterized to date are the variations in free calcium concentrations and defense-related gene expression. The characterization of the activation of cytosolic protein kinases, including WIPK and SIPK, by phosphorylation in response to cryptogein highlights the key-role played by posttranslational modifications in cryptogein-induced signaling events in tobacco cells. In this context, purification/sequencing approaches revealed that two redundant isoforms of type-2 nuclear histone deacetylases, NtHD2a and NtHD2b, were rapidly phosphorylated in cryptogein-treated tobacco cells.This thesis work is part of a comprehensive study of the role of NtHD2a/b in the establishment of the cell death process in tobacco cells and of the hypersensitive response in planta, in response to cryptogein. By using a pharmacological approach and overexpression and RNA interference-based approaches, we confirmed the involvement of NtHD2a/b as negative regulators of elicitin-induced cell death and we achieved a better understanding of cell death signaling events. The molecular events that underly the cell death process appear particularly complex and seem to involve the modulation of defense-related gene expression, de novo protein synthesis and protein kinase activation such as WIPK and SIPK.The study of (de)/acetylation events in tobacco cells treated by cryptogein and invalidated in NtHD2a/b expression suggests a role for posttranslational modifications in cryptogein-induced cell death., La cryptogéine, sécrétée par l’oomycète Phytophthora cryptogea, est un éliciteur protéique des réactions de défense qui active chez le tabac un ensemble d’événements de signalisation conduisant à la mise en place d’une mort cellulaire de type réponse hypersensible et d’une résistance systémique acquise. La caractérisation de la modulation de l’activité de kinases cytosoliques, dont SIPK et WIPK, par des événements de phosphorylation en réponse à la cryptogéine, traduit la place majeure que tiennent les modifications post-traductionnelles dans la cascade de signalisation induite dans les cellules de tabac en réponse à la cryptogéine. Il s’avère que la signalisation cellulaire induite par la cryptogéine, et impliquant ces protéines kinases, converge entre autre vers le noyau à travers la modulation de l’activité d’éléments nucléaires par phosphorylation. Dans ce contexte, d’importants travaux de purification/séquencage, visant à identifier les protéines nucléaires cibles de ces activités kinases, ont permis d’identifier deux isoformes redondantes d’histones désacétylases de type 2 nommés NtHD2a et NtHD2b qui sont rapidement phosphorylées en réponse à la cryptogéine dans les cellules de tabac.Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans l’étude du rôle de NtHD2a/b dans l’établissement du processus de mort cellulaire des cellules de tabac et de la RH in planta en réponse à la cryptogéine. Par des approches de pharmacologie ainsi que des approches de surexpression ou d’invalidation de l’expression de NtHD2a/b chez le tabac, nous avons d’une part confirmé l’implication de NtHD2a/b en tant que régulateurs négatifs de la mort cellulaire induite par la cryptogéine ou d’autres élicitines, et d’autre part mieux appréhendé les événements de la cascade de signalisation prépondérants dans l’établissement de cette mort cellulaire. Les mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents à la mise en place de la mort cellulaire apparaissent complexes et semblent notamment impliquer la modulation de l’expression de gènes de défense, la synthèse de novo de protéines ainsi que l’activation de protéines kinases, dont notamment WIPK et SIPK.Des travaux relatifs à l’étude des événements de (dé)/acétylation dans les cellules de tabac traitées par la cryptogéine et invalidées dans l’expression de NtHD2a/b suggèrent le concours de modifications post-traductionnelles de protéines nucléaires telles que l’acétylation dans la mise en place de la mort cellulaire induite par la cryptogéine chez le tabac.

The grapevine downy mildew affects leaves and young berries and can affect the harvest quality and quantity. The causal agent is the obligate biotroph oomycete Plasmopara viticola that induces severe physiological alterations in infected leaves. One is the abnormal accumulation of starch in oil spots, the characteristic symptoms of the disease. Another is a deregulation of stomatal movements. Stomata, natural openings on the leaf surface allowing gas exchanges between the plant and the atmosphere, stay abnormally open during the night and do no longer close upon water stress or ABA treatment in infected leaves. This thesis is divided into two chapters that aim to i) explain the origin and mechanism of the abnormal starch accumulation and ii) isolate and identify the compound responsible for the stomatal deregulation. The modifications of starch metabolism in infected leaves were first studied by transcriptomic analysis allowing to identify transcriptional modifications of genes involved in starch metabolism. After the validation of two reference genes, a qRT-PCR analysis was performed in order to verify the expression alterations of some of these genes and the corresponding enzymatic activities were measured. The quantification of soluble sugars and starch, and the measurement of photosynthetic activity were included in the analysis and their alterations could be correlated with the infection. Altogether, the obtained results hint towards an increase of starch synthesis via an increase in AGPase activity, that, combined with a decrease of its degradation by modification of amylase activities, could be responsible for the observed starch accumulation in oil spots. Concurrently, a source-sink transition is apparent in infected leaves by decrease of photosynthetic activity and increase of a cell wall invertase activity. The second part of this thesis dealt with a soluble molecule of plant or pathogen origin that is secreted into the apoplast during infection and could be responsible for the stomatal deregulation. The apoplastic wash fluids from infected leaves increase tha stomatal aperture in the dark in grapevine epidermal peels and counteract the ABA-induced stomatal closure, thus mimicking the deregulation observed on whole leaves. The active compound seems to be a stable protein of > 50kDa with a glycosylation that is essentiel for its activity. After separation of the fluids by size exclusion chromatography, two fractions were compared : one active on stomatal aperture and an inactive one. 9 grapevine proteins could be identified in the active sample by mass spectrometry analysis, but further analyses are needed to purify and identify the one responsible for the stomatal deregulation., Le mildiou est une maladie de la vigne affectant les feuilles et les baies et pouvant entraîner des diminutions importantes de la quantité et de la qualité de la vendange. L'agent responsable, Plasmopara viticola, un oomycète biotrophe obligatoire, provoque différentes altérations physiologiques au niveau de la feuille infectée. D'une part, il y a des accumulations anormales d'amidon au niveau des taches d'huile, symptômes caractéristiques de la maladie. D'autre part, l'infection induit une dérégulation des mouvements stomatiques. Les stomates, ouvertures naturelles permettant les échanges gazeux entre la plante et l'atmosphère, restent anormalement ouverts de nuit et ne se ferment plus en réponse à un stress hydrique ou à un traitement à l'ABA. Les deux parties de cette thèse avaient pour objectif de i) expliquer l'origine et le mécanisme de l'accumulation d'amidon et ii) isoler et identifier le facteur responsable de la dérégulation stomatique. Les modifications du métabolisme de l'amidon au niveau des feuilles infectées ont d'abord été étudiées à l'aide d'une analyse transcriptomique afin d'identifier les gènes codant pour des enzymes impliquées dans ce métabolisme dont l'expression était affectée. Après validation de deux gènes de référence, une étude par qRT-PCR a permis de vérifier les changements d'expression de certains de ces gènes au cours de la cinétique de l'infection, puis les activités des enzymes correspondantes ont été déterminées. Ces approches, complétées par des dosages de l'amidon et des sucres solubles ainsi que la mesure de l'activité photosynthétique, ont permis de corréler différents événements avec l'infection. D'après nos résultats, l'accumulation de l'amidon dans les taches d'huile pourrait résulter d'une augmentation de sa synthèse liée à l'augmentation de l'activité AGPase, combinée à une diminution de sa dégradation par modification de l'activité des amylases. Une diminution de la photosynthèse et une augmentation de l'activité invertase traduisent une transition source-puits au niveau des taches d'huile. La deuxième partie de la thèse a porté sur la recherche d'une molécule soluble d'origine végétale ou pathogène, secrétée dans l'apoplasme au cours de l'infection et responsable du dysfonctionnement stomatique. Sur « épidermes isolés », les fluides apoplastiques extraits de feuilles infectées induisent une ouverture stomatique à l'obscurité et contrecarrent la fermeture induite par l'ABA à la lumière, mimant ainsi la dérégulation observée sur feuille entière. Le composé actif serait une protéine assez stable, de taille >50 kDa et modifiée post-traductionellement par une glycosylation essentielle à son activité sur l'ouverture stomatique. Après séparation par chromatographie d'exclusion des fluides apoplastiques de feuilles infectées, deux fractions ont été retenues : une présentant une forte activité sur l'ouverture stomatique, et une seconde sans activité. Neuf protéines de vigne ont été identi fiées spécifiquement dans la fraction active après une analyse comparative de ces deux échantillons par spectrométrie de masse. Des expérimentations supplémentaires seront nécessaires pour purifier et identifier la protéine recherchée.

International audience; Increasing evidences support the assumption that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a physiological mediator in plants. Understanding its pleiotropic effects requires a deep analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying its mode of action. In the recent years, efforts have been made in the identification of plant proteins modified by NO at the post-translational level, notably by S-nitrosylation. This reversible process involves the formation of a covalent bond between NO and reactive cysteine residues. This research has now born fruits and numerous proteins regulated by S-nitrosylation have been identified and characterized. This review describes the basic principle of S-nitrosylation as well as the Biotin Switch Technique and its recent adaptations allowing the identification of S-nitrosylated proteins in physiological contexts. The impact of S-nitrosylation on the structure/function of selected proteins is further discussed. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Communication orale 03.2; absent

National audience; Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) which form a mutualistic symbiosis with most terrestrial plants are not only important for natural ecosystems, but also for agricultural production. The aim of this study is to characterize fungal populations at different geographic scales in order to better understand the processes influencing AMF taxonomic and functional diversity and to determine the environmental factors affecting AMF populations, especially in the context of agricultural management. The mitochondrial large subunit gene of ribosomal RNA will be used as molecular marker to resolve population structure of Rhizophagus irregularis (formerly known as Glomus intraradices). Different sampling approaches are planned, combining sampling of geographically distant sites across France and field sites affected by different environmental factors such as disturbance, fertilization and agricultural management".

International audience; The oomycete Plasmopara viticola is responsible for downy mildew, a severe grapevine disease. In infected grapevine leaves, we have observed an abnormal starch accumulation at the end of the dark period, suggesting modifications in starch metabolism. Therefore, several complementary approaches, including transcriptomic analyses, measurements of enzyme activities, and sugar quantification, were performed in order to investigate and to understand the effects of P. viticola infection on leaf starch and-to a larger extent-carbohydrate metabolism. Our results indicate that starch accumulation is associated with an increase in ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) activity and modifications in the starch degradation pathway, especially an increased α-amylase activity. Together with these alterations in starch metabolism, we have observed an accumulation of hexoses, an increase in invertase activity, and a reduction of photosynthesis, indicating a source-to-sink transition in infected leaf tissue. Additionally, we have measured an accumulation of the disaccharide trehalose correlated to an increased trehalase gene expression and enzyme activity. Altogether, these results highlight a dramatic alteration of carbohydrate metabolism correlated with later stages of P. viticola development in leaves.

International audience; Botrytis cinerea is a major pre- and post-harvest necrotrophic pathogen with a broad host range that causes substantial crop losses. The plant hormone jasmonic acid (JA) is involved in the basal resistance against this fungus. Despite basal resistance, virulent strains of B. cinerea can cause disease on Arabidopsis thaliana and virulent pathogens can interfere with the metabolism of the host in a way to facilitate infection of the plant. However, plant genes that are required by the pathogen for infection remain poorly described. To find such genes, we have compared the changes in gene expression induced in A. thaliana by JA with those induced after B. cinerea using genome-wide microarrays. We have identified genes that are repressed by JA but that are induced by B. cinerea. In this study, we describe one candidate gene, ATGRXS13, that encodes for a putative glutaredoxin and that exhibits such a crossed expression. In plants that are infected by this necrotrophic fungus, ATGRXS13 expression was negatively controlled by JA and TGA transcription factors but also through a JA-salicylic acid (SA) cross-talk mechanism as B. cinerea induced SA production that positively controlled ATGRXS13 expression. Furthermore, plants impaired in ATGRXS13 exhibited resistance to B. cinerea. Finally, we present a model whereby B. cinerea takes advantage of defence signalling pathways of the plant to help the colonization of its host.

Studies conducted over the past ten years indicate that nitric oxide (NO) is a physiological mediator involved in many physiological processes in plants, including germination, root development, stomatal closure or responses against biotic or abiotic stresses. Despite this important range of functions, the mechanisms underlying the effects of NO in plants remain largely unknown. The present work aims at identifying and functionally characterizing NO target proteins in tobacco in the context of biotic and abiotic stresses. We demonstrated that cryptogein, an elicitor of defense responses, induces a rapid and transient S-nitrosylation of several proteins in tobacco cell suspensions. After purification, a dozen of these proteins have been identified through mass spectrometry analysis. These proteins include CDC48 (Cell Division Cycle 48), a chaperone-like protein belonging to the AAA-ATPase family. The regulation of CDC48 by NO was deeply investigated using a combination of structural and biochemical analyses. Once the in vitro S-nitrosylation of CDC48 was confirmed, we next demonstrated that this process does not affect the secondary structure of the protein but induces local changes in its tertiary structure together with an inhibition of its ATPase activity. The cysteine residue 526, located in the second ATPase domain of the protein, was identified as a probable S-nitrosylation site. This crucial localization may explain the inhibitory effect of NO on CDC48 enzymatic activity. The last part of this work was focused on the analysis of the mechanisms underlying the NO-dependent activation of the protein kinase NtOSAK (Nicotiana tabacum stress activated protein kinase) in tobacco. We demonstrated that NtOSAK forms a constitutive complex with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). In response to salt stress, NO promotes the activation of NtOSAK via the phosphorylation of two serine residues located in the activation loop of the enzyme. Moreover, it induces a rapid S-nitrosylation of GAPDH. Interestingly, this latter process does not affect the complex formation. Our hypothesis is that once S-nitrosylated, GAPDH might act as a phosphorelay recruiting protein substrates for NtOSAK.; Les études entreprises depuis une douzaine d'années indiquent que le monoxyde d'azote (NO) est un médiateur physiologique impliqué dans de nombreux processus chez les plantes, incluant la germination, le développement des racines, la fermeture des stomates ou encore la réponse adaptative aux stress biotiques et abiotiques. Malgré cet important panel de fonctions, les mécanismes sous-jacents aux effets du NO ont été peu appréhendés et restent pour l'essentiel énigmatiques. Le travail présenté dans ce manuscrit s'inscrit dans cette problématique et a consisté en l’identification et la caractérisation de protéines cibles du NO chez le tabac dans le contexte de stress biotiques et abiotiques. Nous avons démontré que la cryptogéine, un éliciteur des réactions de défense, induit la S-nitrosylation rapide et transitoire de plusieurs protéines dans des suspensions cellulaires de tabac. Après purification, une douzaine de ces protéines ont été identifiées via une analyse par spectrométrie de masse. Celles-ci incluent notamment une protéine chaperonne de la famille des AAA-ATPase nommée CDC48 (Cell Division Cycle 48). Cette dernière a fait l'objet d'une étude structure/fonction approfondie afin d'appréhender l'impact de sa S-nitrosylation. Après avoir vérifié que la protéine recombinante était S-nitrosylable in vitro, nous avons démontré que ce processus n'affecte pas la structure secondaire de la protéine mais induit des modifications locales de sa structure tertiaire et une inhibition de son activité ATPasique. Le résidu cystéine 526, localisé dans le second domaine ATPasique de la protéine, a été identifié comme site probable de S-nitrosylation. Cette localisation stratégique pourrait expliquer l'effet inhibiteur du NO sur l'activité enzymatique de CDC48. La dernière partie de ce travail a été centrée sur l'analyse des mécanismes par lesquels le NO active la protéine kinase NtOSAK (Nicotiana tabacum stress activated protein kinase) chez le tabac. Nous avons démontré que NtOSAK forme un complexe constitutif avec la glycéraldéhyde 3 phosphate deshydrogénase (GAPDH). En réponse à un stress salin, le NO promeut l'activation de NtOSAK via la phosphorylation de deux résidus serine localisés dans la boucle d'activation de l'enzyme. De plus, il induit une S-nitrosylation rapide de la GAPDH, ce processus n'affectant pas la formation du complexe. Notre hypothèse est que ce complexe constituerait une plateforme de signalisation régulée par le NO et pouvant recruter les protéines cibles de NtOSAK lors de la réponse au stress salin.

Cryptogein, a protein secreted by the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea, induces defense mechanisms in tobacco. Several proteins involved in the associated signaling pathway were identified and localized on the plasma membrane (PM). A fraction resistant to solubilization by detergent named DIMs for Detergent Insoluble Membranes, enriched in sterols an sphigolipids had been isolated from tobacco PM. It was proved to contain proteins previously identified as actors of the signaling cascade triggered by cryptogein. In animal cells, the dynamic association of proteins to sterol and sphingolipid rich microdomains under the influence of a biological stimulus plays an essential role in the regulation of cellular signaling. The purpose of this work was to test the hypothesis that such a phenomenon might occur in our model. The comparison using isotopic labeling (15N or 14N) and quantitative proteomics, of the composition of DIMs extracted from tobacco cells treated or not by cryptogein, revealed that, although the association to DIMs of most proteins remained unchanged, five proteins had their relative abundance modified after 5 minutes of treatment. One of these was a signaling protein (a 14-3-3 protein) and the four others were related to cell trafficking (4 DRPs, Dynamin Related Proteins). We characterized the DRP1A gene family in tobacco, and set up an antisens RNA antisense to down-regulate the expression of this protein. We studied the intracellular localization of DRP1 using specific antibodies and a GFP fusion. The results confirmed the presence of DRP1 in DIMs and its depletion from this fraction upon cryptogein treatment, through a dissociation from the PM. This is the first evidence of a dynamic association/dissociation of proteins to microdomains in plants upon a biological stimulus, La cryptogéine, une protéine sécrétée par l'oomycète Phytophthora cryptogea, provoque la mise en place de mécanismes de défense chez le tabac, mobilisant au cours des étapes précoces de la signalisation associée, des protéines localisées dans la membrane plasmique (MP). Une fraction membranaire résistante à la solubilisation par les détergents (DIM pour Detergent Insoluble Membrane), enrichie en stérols et en sphingolipides avait été purifiée à partir de la MP de tabac : cette fraction contenait plusieurs protéines impliquées dans la cascade de signalisation induite par la cryptogéine. Chez l'animal, l'association dynamique de protéines à des microdomaines riches en stérols et sphingolipides en réponse à un stress biotique joue un rôle essentiel dans la régulation de la signalisation cellulaire. L'objectif de ce travail était de tester l'hypothèse qu'un tel phénomène puisse se produire dans notre modèle d'étude. La comparaison du protéome de fractions DIMs, purifiées à partir de cellules traitées ou non pendant 5 minutes à la cryptogéine a été réalisée à l'aide d'un marquage isotopique (15N ou 14N) et d'une approche de protéomique quantitative. Le premier résultat est que l'abondance de la majorité des protéines n'est pas modifiée dans les DIMs en réponse à la cryptogéine. Une seule protéine est enrichie dans les DIMs, une isoforme de 14-3-3, tandis que quatre dynamines (DRPs pour Dynamin Related Proteins), impliquées dans le trafic vésiculaire, sont exclues des DIMs en réponse à la cryptogéine. L'étude d'une des dynamines identifiées, DRP1A, a été menée. Nous avons caractérisé les différents gènes codant DRP1A dans le génome du tabac, puis utilisé une approche ARN antisens pour altérer l'expression de cette protéine et nous avons étudié sa localisation subcellulaire à l'aide d'anticorps spécifiques et en observant en microscopie confocale cette protéine fusionnée à la GFP. Cette approche a permis de confirmer la présence de DRP1A dans la fraction DIMs et la diminution transitoire de son association à cette fraction en réponse à la cryptogéine, suite à une dissociation de la fraction membranaire. Ces travaux constituent la première mise en évidence d'une association/dissociation dynamique de protéines aux DIMs de plantes en réponse à un stimulus biologique

voir Addenda, notes additionnelles complétant l'article : "Dahan, J., Hammoudi, V., Wendehenne, D., Bourque, S. (2011). Type 2 histone deacetylases play a major role in the control of elicitor-induced cell death in tobacco. Plant signaling & behavior, 6 (11), 1865-1867. DOI : 10.4161/psb.6.11.17848".; International audience; Plant resistance to pathogen attack is often associated with a localized programmed cell death called hypersensitive response (HR). How this cell death is controlled remains largely unknown. Upon treatment with cryptogein, an elicitor of tobacco defence and cell death, we identified NtHD2a and NtHD2b, two redundant isoforms of type-2 nuclear histone deacetylases (HDACs). These HDACs are phosphorylated after a few minutes' treatment, and their rate of mRNAs are rapidly and strongly reduced, leading to a 40-fold decrease after10 h of treatment. By using HDAC inhibitors, RNAi- and overexpression-based approaches, we showed that HDACs, and especially NtHD2a /b, act as inhibitors of cryptogein-induced cell death. Moreover, in NtHD2a/b-silenced plants, infiltration with cryptogein led to HR-like symptoms in distal leaves. Taken together, these results show for the first time that type-2 HDACs, which are specific to plants, act as negative regulators of elicitor-induced cell death in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), suggesting that the HR is controlled by post-translational modifications including (de) acetylation of nuclear proteins.

International audience; Plant cells use calcium-based signalling pathways to transduce biotic and/or abiotic stimuli into adaptive responses. However, little is known about the coupling between calcium signalling, transcriptional regulation and the downstream biochemical processes. To understand these relationships better, we challenged tobacco BY-2 cells with cryptogein and evaluated how calcium transients (monitored through the calcium sensor aequorin) impact (1) transcript levels of phenylpropanoid genes (assessed by RT-qPCR); and (2) derived-phenolic compounds (analysed by mass spectrometry). Most genes of the phenylpropanoid pathway were up-regulated by cryptogein and cell wall-bound phenolic compounds accumulated (mainly 5-hydroxyferulic acid). The accumulation of both transcripts and phenolics was calcium-dependent. The transcriptional regulation of phenylpropanoid genes was correlated in a non-linear manner with stimulus intensity and with components of the cryptogein-induced calcium signature. In addition, calmodulin inhibitors increased the sensitivity of cells to low concentrations of cryptogein. These results led us to propose a model of coupling between the cryptogein signal, calcium signalling and the transcriptional response, exerting control of transcription through the coordinated action of two decoding modules exerting opposite effects.

Background Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, which engage a mutualistic symbiosis with the roots of most plant species, have received much attention for their ability to alleviate heavy metal stress in plants, including cadmium (Cd). While the molecular bases of Cd tolerance displayed by mycorrhizal plants have been extensively analysed in roots, very little is known regarding the mechanisms by which legume aboveground organs can escape metal toxicity upon AM symbiosis. As a model system to address this question, we used Glomus irregulare-colonised Medicago truncatula plants, which were previously shown to accumulate and tolerate heavy metal in their shoots when grown in a substrate spiked with 2 mg Cd kg-1. Results The measurement of three indicators for metal phytoextraction showed that shoots of mycorrhizal M. truncatula plants have a capacity for extracting Cd that is not related to an increase in root-to-shoot translocation rate, but to a high level of allocation plasticity. When analysing the photosynthetic performance in metal-treated mycorrhizal plants relative to those only Cd-supplied, it turned out that the presence of G. irregulare partially alleviated the negative effects of Cd on photosynthesis. To test the mechanisms by which shoots of Cd-treated mycorrhizal plants avoid metal toxicity, we performed a 2-DE/MALDI/TOF-based comparative proteomic analysis of the M. truncatula shoot responses upon mycorrhization and Cd exposure. Whereas the metal-responsive shoot proteins currently identified in non-mycorrhizal M. truncatula indicated that Cd impaired CO2 assimilation, the mycorrhiza-responsive shoot proteome was characterised by an increase in photosynthesis-related proteins coupled to a reduction in glugoneogenesis/glycolysis and antioxidant processes. By contrast, Cd was found to trigger the opposite response coupled the up-accumulation of molecular chaperones in shoot of mycorrhizal plants relative to those metal-free. Conclusion Besides drawing a first picture of shoot proteome modifications upon AM symbiosis and/or heavy metal stress in legume plants, the current work argues for allocation plasticity as the main driving force for Cd extraction in aboveground tissues of M. truncatula upon mycorrhization. Additionally, according to the retrieved proteomic data, we propose that shoots of mycorrhizal legume plants escape Cd toxicity through a metabolic shift implying the glycolysis-mediated mobilization of defence mechanisms at the expense of the photosynthesis-dependent symbiotic sucrose sink.

Although plant biotisation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is a promising strategy for improving plant health, a better knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms involved is required. In this context, we sought to analyse the root proteome of grapevine rootstock Selection Oppenheim 4 (SO4) upon colonisation with two AMF. As expected, AMF colonisation stimulates plant biomass. At the proteome level, changes in protein amounts due to AMF colonisation resulted in 39 differentially accumulated two-dimensional electrophoresis spots in AMF roots relative to control. Out of them, 25 were co-identified in SO4 roots upon colonisation by Glomus irregulare and Glomus mosseae supporting the existence of conserved plant responses to AM symbiosis in a woody perennial species. Among the 18 proteins whose amount was reduced in AMF-colonised roots were proteins involved in glycolysis, protein synthesis and fate, defence and cell rescue, ethylene biosynthesis and purine and pyrimidine salvage degradation. The six co-identified proteins whose amount was increased had functions in energy production, signalling, protein synthesis and fate including proteases. Altogether these data confirmed that a part of the accommodation program of AMF previously characterized in annual plants is maintained within roots of the SO4 rootstock cuttings. Nonetheless, particular responses also occurred involving proteins of carbon metabolism, development and root architecture, defence and cell rescue, anthocyanin biosynthesis and P remobilization, previously reported as induced upon P-starvation. This suggests the occurrence of P reprioritization upon AMF colonization in a woody perennial plant species with agronomical interest.

Alternative strategies are required to reduce pesticide input into the environment for effective and sustainable plant protection. One solution is the activation of plant basal resistance that relies on the application of resistance inducer molecules. In the first part of this study, we analyzed the mode of action of β-aminobutyric acid (BABA), a non-protein amino acid, in the grapevine induced resistance. BABA confers a physiological state, called priming, during which plants are able to mobilize better and/or more rapidly defense responses to biotic or abiotic stress. Unlike oligogalacturonides (OG), we showed that BABA did not induce early signaling events in grapevine cells such as variations of cytosolic free calcium concentration, H2O2 and nitric oxide production, MAPkinase phosphorylation, nor the expression of defense-related genes. Among them, only H2O2 production and the expression of RbohD gene, which encodes a NADPH oxidase, are primed by BABA in OG-treated cells. Moreover, BABA-treated plants display a stronger accumulation of H2O2 in response to the oomycete Plasmopara viticola. Application of an NADPH oxidase inhibitor completely abolishes this H2O2 production and leads to a reduction of BABA-induced resistance against P. viticola. These data suggest that the priming of an NADPH oxidase-dependent H2O2 production contributes to BABA-induced resistance in grapevine. The second part consisted to analyze molecular events involved in plant resistance by using the pad2 (phytoalexin deficient) mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana which is susceptible to a broad range of pathogens. We showed that the glutathione depletion depends on the low amount of glutamate-cysteine ligase protein, the first enzyme involved in its biosynthesis. We studied molecular events, which are involved in defense mechanisms, to understand the impact of the glutathione content on pad2 susceptibility. Our results show that the redox state of glutathione is more oxidized in pad2 than in wild type Col-0. Since cellular redox state change is known to regulate gene expression, a basal transcriptome analysis has been performed in pad2 and wild type plants. Interestingly, most of the identified genes in pad2 are down-regulated, some of them encoding proteins involved in ion fluxes. As expected, the plasma membrane depolarization and events downstream like H2O2 and NO production are impaired in pad2 in response to OG. During infection with Phytophthora brassicae, the lack of H2O2 production is concomitant with an absence of the hypersensitive response, a localize cell death observed in the resistant wild type. After OG treatment or P. brassicae infection, microarray analysis brings out genes related to protein machinery including degradation in pad2. Taken together, these data suggest that the depletion of glutathione has an impact on protein turn-over which disturbs cell signaling events and related biological responses.; La compréhension des mécanismes de défense mis en place lors de la résistance des plantes vis-à-vis d'agents pathogènes a pour objectif de proposer des alternatives à l'utilisation de produits phytosanitaires utilisés en agriculture. Dans une première partie, nous avons étudié les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans la résistance induite aux pathogènes par l'acide β-aminobutyrique (BABA) chez la vigne. En effet, cet acide aminé non protéique favorise un état physiologique particulier, appelé potentialisation, dans lequel la plante est capable de mobiliser plus rapidement et/ou plus intensément ses réactions de défense en réponse à un stress. Contrairement aux éliciteurs comme les oligogalacturonates (OG), nous avons montré que le BABA seul n’induisait pas les événements précoces de signalisation sur suspensions cellulaires de vigne, tels que les variations de la concentration en calcium cytosolique libre ([Ca2+]cyt), la production de monoxyde d’azote (NO), la production d’H2O2, la phosphorylation de MAPkinases, ni l’expression de gènes de défense. Seules la production d’H2O2 et l’expression plus intense du gène RbohD codant une NADPH oxydase sont potentialisées par le BABA dans les suspensions cellulaires élicitées par les OG. In planta, le BABA potentialise également une production d’H2O2 en réponse à l’infection par l’oomycète Plasmopara viticola. L’utilisation d’un inhibiteur de NADPH oxydase abolit complètement cette production d’H2O2 et bloque partiellement la résistance induite par le BABA. Nous montrons donc que la potentialisation de la production d’H2O2 dépendante d’une NADPH oxydase contribue à l’établissement de la résistance induite par le BABA chez la vigne. Une deuxième partie a permis d’appréhender les événements cellulaires impliqués dans la résistance des plantes en se focalisant sur le mutant pad2 (phytoalexin deficient) d’Arabidopsis thaliana. Ce mutant présente une sensibilité accrue à différents pathogènes et contient un taux de glutathion de l’ordre de 20 % par rapport à l’écotype sauvage. Nous avons tout d’abord montré que le faible taux de glutathion dépendait d’une quantité réduite de la première enzyme de sa biosynthèse, la glutamate-cystéine ligase. Le glutathion étant impliqué dans la mise en place des réactions de défense, nous avons tenté de définir le lien entre la déficience en glutathion et la sensibilité de pad2 aux pathogènes. Nous avons tout d’abord montré que pad2 possédait un état redox du glutathion plus oxydé que le sauvage. Une analyse transcriptomique à l’état basal a révélé que la plupart des gènes différentiellement exprimés étaient réprimés chez pad2. Parmi ces gènes, certains codent des protéines impliquées dans les flux d’ions qui pourraient déréguler la dépolarisation membranaire. Nous avons ainsi confirmé que la dépolarisation de la membrane plasmique est amoindrie chez pad2 en réponse aux OG. De plus, des événements en aval tels que la production d’H2O2 et la production de NO sont également plus faibles chez le mutant par rapport au sauvage. Cette absence de la production d’H2O2 a également été spécifiquement observée sur plantes pad2 infectées par l’oomycète Phytophthora brassicae. Il en résulte un développement accru du pathogène corrélé à une absence de réponse hypersensible, une mort cellulaire localisée normalement observée dans le cas du sauvage résistant. En réponse aux OG ou à l’infection par P. brassicae, les analyses transcriptomiques font ressortir un fort enrichissement de gènes relatifs à la dégradation des protéines chez pad2. De manière globale, nos résultats suggèrent que la déficience en glutathion chez pad2 pourrait profondément modifier le turn-over des protéines, perturbant ainsi la signalisation cellulaire et les réponses biologiques associées.

Communication orale, slides, résumé; An innovative Biological Resource Center (BRC) including different types of plant and microbial resources is being created at Dijon (France) to study agro-ecosystems. This BRC aims at promoting technical aspects to preserve the diversity of organisms, to improve identification and characterization tools, to organize databases to merge taxonomic and ecological traits of organisms and to rise up the Quality Standard to provide biological resources on request following exchange of an MTA form.The components are: -Weeds are wild plants in agricultural areas. Weeds are extraordinarily diverse. For research purposes (life history traits, herbicide resistance research, seed identification), the collection includes c.a. 430 weed species (1100 seed samples mostly isolated from France) and seed specimens from c.a. 780 species to serve as references for species identification purposes. Additional seed collections include c.a. 1000 accessions from noxious weeds (containing herbicide-resistant plants). http://www2.dijon.inra.fr/bga/umrbga2009/spip.php?rubrique11 -Legumes are strategic crops worldwide, both as sources of dietary proteins for humans and livestock, and to replace synthetic fertilizers as a source of nitrogen in the soil. The INRA-Dijon Grain Legumes Collection harbors 3 main legume species: pea, faba bean, and lupin spp. counting more than 1000 accessions per species including landraces, mutants and wild forms. These resources are the subject of genetic and phenotypic characterization permitting the definition of core collections and the development of association genetics strategies. http://193.50.15.18/legumbase/ -Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are plant symbionts which provide ecosystem services to crops. The International Bank for the Glomeromycota (IBG) is a structure for conserving AM fungal biodiversity and registering well-defined isolates in an internationally-accredited database. The IBG in Dijon: 1) maintains a core germplasm reservoir of fungal diversity (45 accessions/250 cultures) on host plants, 2) supplies certified reference cultures to researchers, 3) develops molecular probes, 4) preserves commercial fungal lines for industrials, 5) provides technical training for users. http://www.kent.ac.uk/bio/beg/ -see poster “MIAE : A collection dedicated to Soil Microbial Diversity and Environment”.http://www2.dijon.inra.fr/umrmse/spip.php?rubrique47

International audience; Nitric oxide (NO) is a gaseous free radical recognized as a ubiquitous signal transducer that contributes to various biological processes in animals. It exerts most of its effects by regulating the activities of various proteins including Ca2+ channels, protein kinases and transcription factors. In plants, studies conducted over the past ten years revealed that NO also functions as an endogenous mediator in diverse physiological processes ranging from root development to stomatal closure. Its biological role as an intracellular plant messenger molecule, however, remains poorly understood. Here, we review the molecular basis of NO signaling in animals and discuss current knowledge of NO signaling in plants, focusing on its interplay with Ca2+, protein kinases and reactive oxygen species which are well established as widespread key regulators of signal transduction.

International audience

Several studies focusing on elucidating the mechanism of NO (nitric oxide) signalling in plant cells have highlighted that its biological effects are partly mediated by protein kinases. The identity of these kinases and details of how NO modulates their activities, however, remain poorly investigated. In the present study, we have attempted to clarify the mechanisms underlying NO action in the regulation of NtOSAK (Nicotiana tabacum osmotic stress-activated protein kinase), a member of the SNF1 (sucrose non-fermenting 1)-related protein kinase 2 family. We found that in tobacco BY-2 (bright-yellow 2) cells exposed to salt stress, NtOSAK is rapidly activated, partly through a NO-dependent process. This activation, as well as the one observed following treatment of BY-2 cells with the NO donor DEA/NO (diethylamine-NONOate), involved the phosphorylation of two residues located in the kinase activation loop, one being identified as Ser158. Our results indicate that NtOSAK does not undergo the direct chemical modifications of its cysteine residues by S-nitrosylation. Using a co-immunoprecipitation-based strategy, we identified several proteins present in immunocomplex with NtOSAK in salt-treated cells including the glycolytic enzyme GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase). Our results indicate that NtOSAK directly interacts with GAPDH in planta. Furthermore, in response to salt, GAPDH showed a transient increase in its S-nitrosylation level which was correlated with the time course of NtOSAK activation. However, GADPH S-nitrosylation did not influence its interaction with NtOSAK and did not have an impact on the activity of the protein kinase. Taken together, the results support the hypothesis that NtOSAK and GAPDH form a cellular complex and that both proteins are regulated directly or indirectly by NO.

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) association results from a successful interaction between the genomes of the two symbiotic partners. In this context, the aim of my research was to better characterize the role of the late stage symbiosis-related pea genes PsSym36, PsSym33 and PsSym40 in the functional AM (i) by investigating the effect of mutations in the three genes on fungal and plant gene responses and (ii) by creating conditions for the localization of two of the genes, PsSym36 and PsSym40, on the pea genetic map for future map-based cloning. The expression of a subset of ten fungal and eight plant genes,previously reported to be activated during mycorrhiza development, was compared in Glomus intraradices-inoculated roots of wild type and Pssym36, Pssym33 and Pssym40 mutant pea plants. Most of the fungal genes were down-regulated in roots of the Pssym36 mutant where arbuscule formation is defective, and several were upregulated with more rapid fungal development in roots of the Pssym40 mutant. Microdissection of mycorrhizal PsSym40 roots corroborated preferential expression of the three G. intraradices genes SOD, DESAT and PEPISOM in arbuscule-containing cells. Inactivation of PsSym36 also resulted in down regulation of plant genes whilst mutation of the PsSym33 and PsSym40 genes affected plant gene responses in a more time-dependent way. Results thus indicate an implication of the investigated pea SYM genes in the modulation of plant and fungal molecular interactions linked to signaling, nutrient exchange or stress response regulation during AM symbiosis formation and functioning. Conditions for localization of the PsSym36 and PsSym40 genes on the pea genetic map were developed for their future map-based cloning. Based on the molecular markers obtained, it was possible to conclude that localization of the PsSym40 gene most likely resides outside the linkage groups I, II, III or V of the genetic map of pea., L’association mycorhizienne à arbuscules (AM) est le résultat d’une interaction compatible entre les génomes des deux partenaires symbiotiques. Dans ce contexte, le but de mes recherches a été de mieux caractériser le rôle des gènes de pois liés aux stades tardifs de la symbiose, PsSym36, PsSym33 and PsSym40, dans le fonctionnement de la symbiose MA (i) en étudiant l’effet des mutations de ces trois gènes sur l’expression des gènes de la plante et du champignon, et (ii) en créant les conditions pour positionner deux de ces gènes, PsSym36 and PsSym40, sur la carte génétique afin d’envisager leur clonage futur. L’expression d’un groupe de dix gènes fongiques et de huit gènes de plante, déjà décrits pour être activés durant le développement de la mycorhize, a été comparée dans les racines de pois inoculées avec G. intraradices chez les plantes de génotypes sauvages, ou les mutants Pssym36, Pssym33 et Pssym40. L’expression de la plupart des gènes fongiques a été inhibée dans les racines du mutant Pssym36 où la formation des arbuscules est avortée, tandis que l’expression de plusieurs d’entre eux a été activée lorsqu’il existe un développement plus rapide du champignon dans les racines du mutant Pssym40. Des microdisséquats obtenus à partir de racines mycorhizées du mutant PsSym40 confirment l’expression préférentielle de trois gènes de G. intraradices (SOD, DESAT et PEPISOM) dans les cellules contenant les arbuscules. L’inactivation du gène PsSym36 provoque également une inhibition des gènes de plante alors que la mutation des gènes PsSym33 and PsSym40 affecte l’expression des gènes de plante plutôt de façon temporelle. Les résultats indiquent ainsi une implication des gènes SYM de pois dans la modulation des interactions moléculaires entre la plante et le champignon impliquées au niveau de la signalisation, des échanges nutritifs ou de la régulation des réponses au stress durant la formation et/ou le fonctionnement de la symbiose AM. Les conditions pour la localisation des gènes PsSym36 and PsSym40 sur la carte génétique du pois ont été développées pour leur clonage basé sur la cartographie. En utilisant les marqueurs moléculaires obtenus, il a été possible de conclure que la localisation du gène PsSym40 réside vraisemblablement à l’extérieur des groupes de liaison I, II, III ou V de la carte génétique du pois., Формирование арбускулярной микоризы (АМ) является результатом успешного взаимодействия между геномами двух симбиотических партнёров. Целью моего исследования являлось изучение роли поздних симбиотических генов гороха PsSym36, PsSym33 и PsSym40 в формировании функционального АМ симбиоза. Для этого было проведено исследование эффекта мутаций в генах PsSym36, PsSym33 и PsSym40 на экспрессию грибных и растительных генов, предположительно (по литературным данным) вовлечённых в процессы формирования АМ, а так же проведена работа по локализации генов PsSym36 и PsSym40 на генетической карте гороха для последующего более точного картирования и позиционного клонирования данных генов. Экспрессия десяти грибных и восьми растительных генов была определена в корнях растений дикого типа и PsSym36, PsSym33 и PsSym40 мутантов, инокулированных G. intraradices. В корнях PsSym36 мутанта, имеющего дефект развития арбускул, большая часть грибных генов была супрессирована, в то время как в корнях PsSym40 мутанта, для которого характерна более быстрая по сравнению с диким типом микоризация, был отмечен более высокий уровень экспрессии грибных генов. Использование метода микродиссекций позволило выделить клетки, содержащие арбускулы, из микоризованных корней мутанта PsSym40 и подтвердить, что гены G. intraradices SOD, DESAT и PEPISOM преимущественно экспрессируются в клетках, содержащих арбускулы. Мутация в гене PsSym36 также привела к подавлению экспрессии большинства вовлечённых в анализ растительных генов, тогда как мутации в генах PsSym33 и PsSym40 оказали влияние на ксперессию растительных генов в меньшей степени. Полученные результаты свидетельствуют о роли исследуемых SYM генов гороха в контролировании растительно-грибных молекулярных взаимодействий, связанных с сигналингом, обменом питательными веществами и стрессовыми реакциями в процессе формирования и функционирования АМ симбиоза. Проведённое генетическое картирование не привело к локализации генов PsSym36 и PsSym40 на генетической карте гороха. Однако разработка и использование молекулярных маркеров для картирования позволили исключить локализацию гена PsSym40 в I, II, III и V группах сцепления с высокой долей вероятности.

International audience; Significant efforts have been directed towards the identification of genes differentially regulated through nitric oxide (NO)-dependent processes. These efforts comprise the use of medium- and large-scale transcriptomic analyses including microarray and cDNA-amplification fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) approaches. Numerous putative NO-responsive genes have been identified in plant tissues and cell suspensions with transcript levels altered by artificially released NO, or endogenously produced. Comparative analysis of the data from such transcriptomic analyses in Arabidopsis reveals that a significant part of these genes encode proteins related to plant adaptive responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Putative common transcription factor-binding sites in the promoter of NO-regulated genes have been defined. The current challenge remains to validate the interpretations deduced from the transcriptomic analyses and to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the NO-dependent modulation of the genes of interest. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Nitric oxide (NO) functions as a cell-signaling molecule in plants. In particular, a role for NO in the regulation of iron homeostasis and in the plant response to toxic metals has been proposed. Here, we investigated the synthesis and the role of NO in plants exposed to cadmium (Cd2+), a nonessential and toxic metal. We demonstrate that Cd2+ induces NO synthesis in roots and leaves of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedlings. This production, which is sensitive to NO synthase inhibitors, does not involve nitrate reductase and AtNOA1 but requires IRT1, encoding a major plasma membrane transporter for iron but also Cd2+. By analyzing the incidence of NO scavenging or inhibition of its synthesis during Cd2+ treatment, we demonstrated that NO contributes to Cd2+-triggered inhibition of root growth. To understand the mechanisms underlying this process, a microarray analysis was performed in order to identify NO-modulated root genes up- and down-regulated during Cd2+ treatment. Forty-three genes were identified encoding proteins related to iron homeostasis, proteolysis, nitrogen assimilation/metabolism, and root growth. These genes include IRT1. Investigation of the metal and ion contents in Cd2+-treated roots in which NO synthesis was impaired indicates that IRT1 up-regulation by NO was consistently correlated to NO's ability to promote Cd2+ accumulation in roots. This analysis also highlights that NO is responsible for Cd2+-induced inhibition of root Ca2+ accumulation. Taken together, our results suggest that NO contributes to Cd2+ toxicity by favoring Cd2+ versus Ca2+ uptake and by initiating a cellular pathway resembling those activated upon iron deprivation.

When a plant cell is challenged by a well-defined stimulus, complex signal transduction pathways are activated to promote the modulation of specific sets of genes and eventually to develop adaptive responses. In this context, protein phosphorylation plays a fundamental role through the activation of multiple protein kinase families. Although the involvement of protein kinases at the plasma membrane and cytosolic levels are now well-documented, their nuclear counterparts are still poorly investigated. In the field of plant defence reactions, no known study has yet reported the activation of a nuclear protein kinase and/or its nuclear activity in plant cells, although some protein kinases, e.g. MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), are known to be translocated into the nucleus. In the present study, we investigated the ability of cryptogein, a proteinaceous elicitor of tobacco defence reactions, to induce different nuclear protein kinase activities. We found that at least four nuclear protein kinases are activated in response to cryptogein treatment in a time-dependent manner, some of them exhibiting Ca2+-dependent activity. The present study focused on one 47 kDa protein kinase with a Ca2+-independent activity, closely related to the MAPK family. After purification and microsequencing, this protein kinase was formally identified as SIPK (salicyclic acid-induced protein kinase), a biotic and abiotic stress-activated MAPK of tobacco. We also showed that cytosolic activation of SIPK is not sufficient to promote a nuclear SIPK activity, the latter being correlated with cell death. In that way, the present study provides evidence of a functional nuclear MAPK activity involved in response to an elicitor treatment.

communication orale invitée; We will present a synthesis of the results of our study aiming at evaluating the impact of the cultivation of different maize genotypes (Monumental, DKC3420, DK315, DKC5143, DKC5783) and of corresponding Bt-maize genotypes tolerant to the pyrale production (Mon810, TXP138-F, DKc3946, DK5018, DKc5783Bt), on soil microflora. This analysis has been conducted on three compartments: the soil, the rhizosphere (defined as the soil in contact with the root) and the root (colonisation by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi).This study has been performed in a greenhouse experiment settled to estimate the impact produced by the cultivation of the different maize genotypes on: (i) global microbial indicators, such as the structure of soil bacterial and fungal communities and (ii) functional microbial communities responsible for denitrification (narG), degradation of pesticides (herbicide atrazine, atzC) and arbuscular mycorhizal symbiosis.This integrated approach allowed the estimation of the impact of the cultivation of Bt-maize genotypes relative to that produced by the cultivation of different genotypes of maize on the structure and the functioning of soil microbial communities, notably those promoting plant growth and health which are key elements of soil fertility.

FR2116

There is much interest in the transduction pathways by which avirulent pathogens or derived elicitors activate plant defense responses. However, little is known about anion channel functions in this process. The aim of this study was to reveal the contribution of anion channels in the defense response triggered in tobacco by the elicitor cryptogein. Cryptogein induced a fast nitrate (NO(3)(-)) efflux that was sensitive to anion channel blockers and regulated by phosphorylation events and Ca(2+) influx. Using a pharmacological approach, we provide evidence that NO(3)(-) efflux acts upstream of the cryptogein-induced oxidative burst and a 40-kD protein kinase whose activation seems to be controlled by the duration and intensity of anion efflux. Moreover, NO(3)(-) efflux inhibitors reduced and delayed the hypersensitive cell death triggered by cryptogein in tobacco plants. This was accompanied by a delay or a complete suppression of the induction of several defense-related genes, including hsr203J, a gene whose expression is correlated strongly with programmed cell death in plants. Our results indicate that anion channels are involved intimately in mediating defense responses and hypersensitive cell death.

Short- and long-term persistence of pathogenic (i.e., tumor forming) agrobacteria in soil was investigated in six nursery plots with a history of high crown gall incidence. No pathogenic Agrobacterium strains were isolated in soil samples taken in fall and winter in any plots, but such strains were isolated from both bulk soils and weed rhizospheres (over 0.5 × 10 5 pathogenic CFU/g of bulk soil or rhizosphere) in three out of six plots in spring and summer. PCR amplifications of a vir sequence from DNA extracted from soil confirmed the presence of Ti plasmids in summer and their absence in fall and winter. The results indicate that strains that harbor a Ti plasmid had an unforeseen positive fitness versus Ti plasmid-free strains in soil and rhizosphere in spring and summer in spite of the apparent absence of tumor, and hence of opines. The gain of fitness occurred during a bloom of all cultivable agrobacteria observed only in conducive soils. An evolution of the pathogenic population was recorded during a 4-year period in one particularly conducive soil. In 1990, the pathogenic population in this soil consisted of only biovar 1 strains harboring both octopine- and nopaline-type Ti plasmids. In 1994, it consisted of only nopaline-type Ti plasmids equally distributed among biovar 1 and 2 strains. These results suggest that nopaline-type Ti plasmids conferred a better survival ability than octopine-type Ti plasmids to biovar 2 agrobacteria under the present field conditions.

Herein, we report the synthetic strategies and characterization of some novel 1,3,4-oxadiazole homonucleoside analogs that are relevant to potential antitumor and cytotoxic activities. The structure of all compounds is confirmed using various spectroscopic methods such as 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, HRMS, and FTIR. These compounds were evaluated against three human cancer cell lines (MCF-7, SKBR3, and HL60 Cell Line). Preliminary investigations showed that the cytotoxic activity was markedly dependent on the nucleobase. Introduction of 5-Iodouracil 4g and theobromine 6b proved to be extremely beneficial even they were more potent than the reference drug (DOX). Also, the synthesized compounds were tested for their antiviral activities against the human varicella-zoster virus (VZV). The product 4h was (6-azauracil derivative) more potent to the reference (acyclovir) against the deficient TK - VZV strain by about 2-fold. Finally, molecular docking suggested that the anticancer activities of compounds 6b and 4g mediated by inhibiting dual proteins EGFR/HER2 with low micromolar inhibition constant Ki range. The 1,3,4-oxadiazole homonucleosides showed a strong affinity to binding sites of target proteins by forming H-bond, carbon-hydrogen bond, Pi-anion, Pi-sulfur, Pi-sigma, alkyl, and Pi-alkyl interactions. ispartof: NUCLEOSIDES NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS vol:39 issue:8 pages:1088-1107 ispartof: location:United States status: published

International audience; In a context of a sustainable viticulture, the implementation of innovative eco-friendly strategies, such as elicitor-triggered immunity, requires a deep knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying grapevine defense activation, from pathogen perception to resistance induction. During plant-pathogen interaction, the first step of plant defense activation is ensured by the recognition of microbe-associated molecular patterns, which are elicitors directly derived from pathogenic or beneficial microbes. Vitis vinifera, like other plants, can perceive elicitors of different nature, including proteins, amphiphilic glycolipid, and lipopeptide molecules as well as polysaccharides, thanks to their cognate pattern recognition receptors, the discovery of which recently began in this plant species. Furthermore, damage-associated molecular patterns are another class of elicitors perceived by V. vinifera as an invader's hallmark. They are mainly polysaccharides derived from the plant cell wall and are generally released through the activity of cell wall-degrading enzymes secreted by microbes. Elicitor perception and subsequent activation of grapevine immunity end in some cases in efficient grapevine resistance against pathogens. Using complementary approaches, several molecular markers have been identified as hallmarks of this induced resistance stage. This review thus focuses on the recognition of elicitors by Vitis vinifera describing the molecular mechanisms triggered from the elicitor perception to the activation of immune responses. Finally, we discuss the fact that the link between elicitation and induced resistance is not so obvious and that the formulation of resistance inducers remains a key step before their application in vineyards.

Silver birch (Betula pendula) is a pioneer boreal tree that can be induced to flower within 1 year. Its rapid life cycle, small (440-Mb) genome, and advanced germplasm resources make birch an attractive model for forest biotechnology. We assembled and chromosomally anchored the nuclear genome of an inbred B. pendula individual. Gene duplicates from the paleohexaploid event were enriched for transcriptional regulation, whereas tandem duplicates were overrepresented by environmental responses. Population resequencing of 80 individuals showed effective population size crashes at major points of climatic upheaval. Selective sweeps were enriched among polyploid duplicates encoding key developmental and physiological triggering functions, suggesting that local adaptation has tuned the timing of and cross-talk between fundamental plant processes. Variation around the tightly-linked light response genes PHYC and FRS10 correlated with latitude and longitude and temperature, and with precipitation for PHYC. Similar associations characterized the growth-promoting cytokinin response regulator ARR1, and the wood development genes KAK and MED5A.

International audience; Root hairs are protrusions from root epidermal cells with crucial roles in plant soil interactions. Although much is known about patterning, polarity and tip growth of root hairs, contributions of membrane trafficking to hair initiation remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the trans-Golgi network-localized YPT-INTERACTING PROTEIN 4a and YPT-INTERACTING PROTEIN 4b (YIP4a/b) contribute to activation and plasma membrane accumulation of Rho-of-plant (ROP) small GTPases during hair initiation, identifying YIP4a/b as central trafficking components in ROP-dependent root hair formation.

International audience

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) is susceptible to many pathogens which cause significant losses to viticulture worldwide. Chemical control is available, but agro-ecological concerns have raised interest in alternative methods, especially in triggering plant immunity by elicitor treatments. The β-glucan laminarin (Lam) and its sulfated derivative (PS3) have been previously demonstrated to induce resistance in grapevine against downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola). However, if Lam elicits classical grapevine defenses such as oxidative burst, pathogenesis-related (PR)-proteins and phytoalexin production, PS3 triggered grapevine resistance via a poorly understood priming phenomenon. The aim of this study was to identify the molecular mechanisms of the PS3-induced resistance. For this purpose we studied i) the signaling events and transcriptome reprogramming triggered by PS3 treatment on uninfected grapevine, ii) grapevine immune responses primed by PS3 during P. viticola infection. Our results showed that i) PS3 was unable to elicit reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration variations, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation but triggered a long lasting plasma membrane depolarization in grapevine cells, ii) PS3 and Lam shared a common stress-responsive transcriptome profile that partly overlapped the salicylate- (SA) and jasmonate-(JA)-dependent ones. After P. viticola inoculation, PS3 specifically primed the SA- and ROS-dependent defense pathways leading to grapevine induced resistance against this biotroph. Interestingly pharmacological approaches suggested that the plasma membrane depolarization and the downstream ROS production are key events of the PS3-induced resistance.

Apoplastic events such as monolignol oxidation and lignin polymerization are difficult to study in intact trees. To investigate the role of apoplastic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in gymnosperm phenolic metabolism, an extracellular lignin-forming cell culture of Norway spruce (Picea abies) was used as a research model. Scavenging of apoplastic H2O2 by potassium iodide repressed lignin formation, in line with peroxidases activating monolignols for lignin polymerization. Time-course analyses coupled to candidate substrate-product pair network propagation revealed differential accumulation of low-molecular-weight phenolics, including (glycosylated) oligolignols, (glycosylated) flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins, in lignin-forming and H2O2-scavenging cultures and supported that monolignols are oxidatively coupled not only in the cell wall but also in the cytoplasm, where they are coupled to other monolignols and proanthocyanidins. Dilignol glycoconjugates with reduced structures were found in the culture medium, suggesting that cells are able to transport glycosylated dilignols to the apoplast. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that scavenging of apoplastic H2O2 resulted in remodulation of the transcriptome, with reduced carbon flux into the shikimate pathway propagating down to monolignol biosynthesis. Aggregated coexpression network analysis identified candidate enzymes and transcription factors for monolignol oxidation and apoplastic H2O2 production in addition to potential H2O2 receptors. The results presented indicate that the redox state of the apoplast has a profound influence on cellular metabolism.

Silver birch (Betula pendula) is a pioneer boreal tree that can be induced to flower within 1 year. Its rapid life cycle, small (440-Mb) genome, and advanced germplasm resources make birch an attractive model for forest biotechnology. We assembled and chromosomally anchored the nuclear genome of an inbred B. pendula individual. Gene duplicates from the paleohexaploid event were enriched for transcriptional regulation, whereas tandem duplicates were overrepresented by environmental responses. Population resequencing of 80 individuals showed effective population size crashes at major points of climatic upheaval. Selective sweeps were enriched among polyploid duplicates encoding key developmental and physiological triggering functions, suggesting that local adaptation has tuned the timing of and cross-talk between fundamental plant processes. Variation around the tightly-linked light response genes PHYC and FRS10 correlated with latitude and longitude and temperature, and with precipitation for PHYC. Similar associations characterized the growth-promoting cytokinin response regulator ARR1, and the wood development genes KAK and MED5A., published version, peerReviewed

International audience; Phytoplankton is acknowledged to be a very diverse source of bioactive molecules. These compounds play physiological roles that allow cells to deal with changes of the environmental constrains. For example, the diversity of light harvesting pigments allows efficient photosynthesis at different depths in the seawater column. Identically, lipid composition of cell membranes can vary according to environmental factors. This, together with the heterogenous evolutionary origin of taxa, makes the chemical diversity of phytoplankton compounds much larger than in terrestrial plants. This contribution is dedicated to pigments and lipids synthesized within or from plastids/photosynthetic membranes. It starts with a short review of cyanobacteria and microalgae phylogeny. Then the bioactivity of pigments and lipids (anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, anti-allergic activities, and cardio-neuro-, hepato-and photoprotective effects), alone or in combination, is detailed. To increase the cellular production of bioactive compounds, specific culture conditions may be applied (e.g., high light intensity, nitrogen starvation). Regardless of the progress made in blue biotechnologies, OPEN ACCESS Mar. Drugs 2013, 11 3426 the production of bioactive compounds is still limited. However, some examples of large scale production are given, and perspectives are suggested in the final section.

International audience; The spread of “flavescence dorée” (FD) phytoplasma among grapevines is made by the leafhopper Scaphoideus titanus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). Laboratory choice tests were performed to better understand insect vector preferences. The host preferences of nymphs and adults were compared between an experimental host plant, broadbean, and its natural host plant, grapevine, and between healthy and FD-infected plants. Grapevine was preferred to broadbean by nymphs and adults, but this preference was influenced by feeding experience. The presence of FD phytoplasma in plants made FD-infected grapevines more attractive than the healthy ones to both instar stages tested, while the preference for infected broadbean over healthy ones was only observed in adults. Plant yellowing due to the phytoplasma may increase the attractiveness of FD-infected plants. The experimental results showed that S. titanus was more attracted to yellow cues than to green, blue, or red ones. The attractiveness of FD-infected grapevines to the vector could be an efficient way to enhance disease spreading by increasing the proportion of infective vectors in the population.

International audience; Plant viruses use sieve elements in phloem as the route of long-distance movement and systemic infection in plants. Plants, in turn, deploy RNA silencing, R-gene mediated defence and other mechanisms to prevent phloem transport of viruses. Cell-to-cell movement of viruses from an initially infected leaf to stem and other parts of the plant could be another possibility for systemic invasion, but it is considered to be too slow. This idea is supported by observations made on viruses that are deficient in phloem loading. The leaf abscission zone forming at the base of the petiole may constitute a barrier that prevents viral cell-to-cell movement. The abscission zone and protective layer are difficult to localize in the petiole until the leaf reaches an advanced stage of senescence. Viruses tagged with the green fluorescent protein are helpful for localization and study of the developing abscission zone.

International audience; The molecular dialogue occurring prior to direct contact between the fungal and plant partners of arbuscular-mycorrhizal (AM) symbioses begins with the release of fungal elicitors, so far only partially identified chemically, which can activate specific signaling pathways in the host plant. We show here that the activation of MAPK is also induced by exudates of germinating spores of Gigaspora margarita in cultured cells of the non-leguminous species tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), as well as in those of the model legume Lotus japonicus. MAPK activity peaked about 15 min after the exposure of the host cells to the fungal exudates (FE). FE were also responsible for a rapid and transient increase in free cytosolic Ca2þ in Nicotiana plumbaginifolia and tobacco cells, and pre-treatment with a Ca2þ-channel blocker (La3þ) showed that in these cells, MAPK activation was dependent on the cytosolic Ca2þ increase. A partial dependence of MAPK activity on the common Sym pathway could be demonstrated for a cell line of L. japonicus defective for LjSym4 and hence unable to establish an AM symbiosis. Our results show that MAPK activation is triggered by an FE-induced cytosolic Ca2þ transient, and that a Sym genetic determinant acts to modulate the intensity and duration of this activity.

International audience; The recent publication of the grapevine genome sequence facilitates the use of qRT-PCR to study gene expression changes. For this approach, reference genes are commonly used to normalize data and their stability of expression should be systematically validated. Among grapevine defenses is the production of the antimicrobial stilbenic phytoalexins, notably the highly fungitoxic pterostilbene, which plays a crucial role in grapevine interaction with Plasmopara viticola and Botrytis cinerea. As a resveratrol O-methyltransferase (ROMT) gene involved in pterostilbene synthesis was recently identified, we investigated the accumulation of the corresponding transcripts to those of two other stilbene biosynthesis related genes phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) and stilbene synthase (STS) in response to pathogen infection. Using three computer-based statistical methods and C-t values or LRE method generated values as input data, we have first identified two reference genes (VATP16 and 60SRP) suitable for normalization of qPCR expression data obtained in grapevine leaves and berries infected by P. viticola and B. cinerea, respectively. Next, we have highlighted that the expression of ROMT is induced in P. viticola-infected leaves and also in B. cinerea-infected berries, confirming the involvement of pterostilbene in grapevine defenses.

International audience; The effects of changes in plasma membrane (PM) sterol lateral organization and availability on the control of signaling pathways have been reported in various animal systems, but rarely assessed in plant cells. In the present study, the pentaene macrolide antibiotic filipin III, commonly used in animal systems as a sterol sequestrating agent, was applied to tobacco cells. We show that filipin can be used at a non-lethal concentration that still allows an homogeneous labeling of the plasma membrane and the formation of filipin-sterol complexes at the ultrastructural level. This filipin concentration triggers a rapid and transient NADPH oxidase-dependent production of reactive oxygen species, together with an increase in both medium alkalinization and conductivity. Pharmacological inhibition studies suggest that these signaling events may be regulated by phosphorylations and free calcium. By conducting FRAP experiments using the di-4-ANEPPDHQ probe and spectrofluorimetry using the Laurdan probe, we provide evidence for a filipin-induced increase in PM viscosity that is also regulated by phosphorylations. We conclude that filipin triggers ligand-independent signaling responses in plant cells. The present findings strongly suggest that changes in PM sterol availability could act as a sensor of the modifications of cell environment in plants leading to adaptive cell responses through regulated signaling processes.

International audience; The molecular mechanisms underlying the process of priming are poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the early signaling events triggered by β-aminobutyric acid (BABA), a well-known priming-mediated plant resistance inducer. Our results indicate that, in contrast to oligogalacturonides (OG), BABA does not elicit typical defense-related early signaling events nor defense-gene expression in grapevine. However, in OG-elicited cells pretreated with BABA, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of the respiratory-burst oxidase homolog RbohD gene were primed. In response to the causal agent of downy mildew Plasmopara viticola, a stronger ROS production was specifically observed in BABA-treated leaves. This process was correlated with an increased resistance. The NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenylene iodonium (DPI) abolished this primed ROS production and reduced the BABA-induced resistance (BABA-IR). These results suggest that priming of an NADPH oxidase–dependent ROS production contributes to BABA-IR in the Vitis-Plasmopara pathosystem.

International audience; Calcium and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are acknowledged as crucial second messengers involved in the response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. However, it is still not clear how these two compounds can play a role in different signaling pathways leading the plant to a variety of processes such as root development or defense against pathogens. Recently, it has been shown that the concept of calcium and ROS signatures, initially discovered in the cytoplasm, can also be extended to the nucleus of plant cells. In addition, it has been clearly proved that both ROS and calcium signals are intimately interconnected. How this cross-talk can finally modulate the translocation and/or the activity of nuclear proteins leading to the control of specific genes expression is the main focus of this review. We will especially focus on how calcium and ROS interact at the molecular level to modify their targets.

L'article original est publié par The American Society of Plant Biologists; International audience; In this article, we analyzed the lipid composition of detergent-insoluble membranes (DIMs) purified from tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plasma membrane (PM), focusing on polyphosphoinositides, lipids known to be involved in various signal transduction events. Polyphosphoinositides were enriched in DIMs compared with whole PM, whereas all structural phospholipids were largely depleted from this fraction. Fatty acid composition analyses suggest that enrichment of polyphosphoinositides in DIMs is accompanied by their association with more saturated fatty acids. Using an immunogold-electron microscopy strategy, we were able to visualize domains of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in the plane of the PM, with 60% of the epitope found in clusters of approximately 25 nm in diameter and 40% randomly distributed at the surface of the PM. Interestingly, the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate cluster formation was not significantly sensitive to sterol depletion induced by methyl-β-cyclodextrin. Finally, we measured the activities of various enzymes of polyphosphoinositide metabolism in DIMs and PM and showed that these activities are present in the DIM fraction but not enriched. The putative role of plant membrane rafts as signaling membrane domains or membrane-docking platforms is discussed.

International audience; The arbuscular mycorrhiza association results from a successful interaction between genomes of the plant and fungal symbiotic partners. In this study, we analyzed the effect of inactivation of late-stage symbiosis-related pea genes on symbiosis-associated fungal and plant molecular responses in order to gain insight into their role in the functional mycorrhizal association. The expression of a subset of ten fungal and eight plant genes, previously reported to be activated during mycorrhiza development, was compared in Glomus intraradices-inoculated wild-type and isogenic genotypes of pea mutated for the PsSym36, PsSym33, and PsSym40 genes where arbuscule formation is inhibited or fungal turnover modulated, respectively. Microdissection was used to corroborate arbuscule-related fungal gene expression. Molecular responses varied between pea genotypes and with fungal development. Most of the fungal genes were downregulated when arbuscule formation was defective, and several were upregulated with more rapid fungal development. Some of the plant genes were also affected by inactivation of the PsSym36, PsSym33, and PsSym40 loci, but in a more time-dependent way during root colonization by G. intraradices. Results indicate a role of the late-stage symbiosis-related pea genes not only in mycorrhiza development but also in the symbiotic functioning of arbuscule-containing cells.