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This research provides a review of seated shot put alongside new data from the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games with the aim to understand the latest trends in equipment within a recently established rule set and how key equipment variables may impact performance for athletes in different classifications. First, a review of the literature found that the throwing pole is a key equipment aid that is not well understood, in part due to limitations in testing design. New data from the 2020 Paralympic Games showed inconsistent trends for the use of the throwing pole among athletes, particularly in transitionary classes (F33–34 and F54–55). A two-way analysis of variance found a main effect of classification on performance (p <.001), as well as an interaction effect between pole use and classification on performance (p <.05). Notably, pole users are seen to perform better than non–pole users in Class F32 (p <.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Paralympic sport, athletes, coaches and administrators seek medal-winning outcomes. Research in the fields of biomechanics and motor control can support the quantification of performance measures and injury risk. The aim of this article is to review the state of existing research and identify gaps offering researchers and practitioners targeted paths for creating competitive advantages. This review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). Four electronic databases were searched in accordance with selected terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria. A custom data charting matrix was used to identify relevant characteristics. From the 3363 retrieved articles, 237 studies covering 24 Paralympic sports were included. A new metric, medal events per included study (MEPIS), was developed. Research gaps were identified in the sports studied, impairment types, gender balance, the injury reduction process, and the application of motor control research, leading to suggested directions targeting Paralympic success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study explored coach and athlete reactions and challenges leading up to the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, with a specific focus on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Games' postponement. Nine Australian Paralympic coaches (n = 3) and athletes (n = 6) shared their experiences in semistructured interviews. The thematic analysis highlighted how participants experienced the emergence of the pandemic in different ways, but all were relieved when the late but eventual decision to postpone the Games was made. Regarding lockdown periods (i.e., social-distancing restrictions), some coaches and athletes thrived under the new reality (i.e., training from home, online coaching) while others had more difficulty adjusting. Furthermore, results highlight the many uncertainties still remaining, which continue to influence participants' sport and personal lives. The experiences of coaches and athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic sheds light on strategies and resources that could support Paralympic coaches and athletes during current and future crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Skill acquisition is still a relatively new and emerging specialist discipline in the sport sciences. Like other disciplines, current service support in Paralympic sport is limited, often based on theory adapted from able-bodied sport, or findings from research programmes that are not representative of elite sport contexts. The application of skill acquisition principles and pedagogical research is an opportunity to support the development of practice task designs in para-sport contexts. Of interest is the individualised nature of athlete impairments, requiring a flexible and imaginative approach, particularly given potential barriers between theory and practice. The Constraints-Led Approach (CLA) provides one potential solution; a functional framework for understanding interacting factors on athlete performance and learning. Despite the advocacy for a broad application of this approach in recent years, this has still had limited impact or research situated in elite sport. Purpose: To begin to bridge the gap between theory and practice, we consider the experiences of a skill acquisition specialist (SAS) working with para-sport coaches and athletes. We highlight key issues and challenges in these contexts, and "how" and "why" a CLA has been central to skill acquisition support. Furthermore, we aim to demonstrate how the need to pay careful attention to individual and environmental constraints in para-sport can highlight universal recommendations for practitioners who work in physical education (PE) or able-bodied coaching. Design: These aims are achieved via a reflective 'conversation' between the two authors. Commentaries are provided to compare experiences of the first author with current understandings within the literature. A case-study is then used to provide insights to bring to life how the framework of a CLA was used to support task designs for an athlete preparing for the 2016 Rio Paralympic Games. Findings: Reflections highlight the importance of the SAS gathering knowledge "within" and "about" specific athletes and contexts by immersing themselves in the performance environment to fully understand the complexities of the coaching environment, and adapt support accordingly. Discussions highlight the importance of working closely with coaches to harness experiential knowledge and design truly individualised tasks that match the individual needs of athletes. Considering impairment as simply one of many interacting individual constraints can allow for more effective task designs and provide useful examples for practitioners across a wider range of contexts (e.g. able-bodied sport, PE). We demonstrate how a CLA should be considered as a flexible framework, and that implementation needs to be carefully designed based on a range of factors (e.g. socio-cultural, coaching contexts). We also stress that an effective CLA is not a 'hands-off' approach, but constant careful and considered manipulation, facilitation and appropriate instructional input. Examples and key reflections are provided for coaches across all sport and PE contexts to consider when looking to implement a CLA. Conclusions: A CLA can support the development of individualised learning programmes and integration of key skill acquisition principles. Practitioners should look to consider the individual constraints, socio-cultural and coaching context to adapt current frameworks and knowledge to support coaches to continually improve practice task designs.

This three-part investigation conducted a comprehensive analysis of 213 Australian and Canadian athletes' developmental trajectories, training histories, and experiences in organized sports from 18 Paralympic sports (PS). While athletes with early-onset impairments (i.e., congenital, preadolescent) reached milestones and commenced various types of training at a significantly younger age than athletes with later-onset impairments (i.e., early adulthood, adulthood), the latter groups progressed through their careers and incorporated various trainings at a faster pace (i.e., fewer years). Preferences to certain training conditions varied between groups. Eighty-two percent of the athletes with acquired impairments had experience in able-bodied sports before the onset of their impairment, with 70% noting involvement in sports similar to their current PS. The participation rates (38%) and sport similarity (53%) were lower in PS. The amalgamation of findings from this series of studies highlights the complexity associated with PS athletes' development and demonstrates the importance of taking an individualized approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has recently examined the role of impairment onset on athlete development in Paralympic sport; however, less is known on how impairment type can impact athlete sporting pathways. In this study, 187 Australian and Canadian Paralympic sport athletes completed a survey. Participants were divided into the following four groups: impaired muscle power (n = 79); ataxia, athetosis, and hypertonia (n = 44); limb deficiencies (n = 42); and other physical impairments (n = 22). Mechanisms of initiation into Paralympic sport varied between groups with some drawn to sport through friends and/or family (i.e., limb deficiencies and other physical impairments groups) while others through talent search programs (i.e., ataxia, athetosis, and hypertonia group) or health care professionals/rehabilitation centers (i.e., impaired muscle power group). Results revealed no significant differences between groups in the chronological age or absolute years for achieving milestones. However, considering the high variability within the sample, more research is necessary to better understand how athletes with different physical impairments navigate through their sporting careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose:Maximal acceleration from standstill has been identified as a key performance indicator in wheelchair rugby; however, the impact of classification and kinematic variables on performance has received limited attention. This study aimed to investigate kinematic variables during maximal acceleration, with level of activity limitation accounted for using sportclassification scores. Methods: Based on their sporting classification scores, which reflect combined trunk, arm, and hand function, 25 elite wheelchair rugby players were analyzed in high-, mid-, and low-point groups before completing five 5-m sprints from a stationary position. Inertial measurement units and video analysis were used to monitor key kinematic variables. Results: Significant differences in kinematic variables were evident across the classification groups, particularly for the first stroke-contact angle (1-way ANOVA F2,122 = 51.5, P < .05) and first stroke time (F2,124 = 18.3, P < .05). High-point players used a first strokecontact angle that was closer to top dead center of the wheel than either other group, while also using a shorter overall stroke time than low-point players. A linear mixed-effects model was used to investigate how kinematic variables influenced performance, with results suggesting that increased release angles (ie, farther around the wheel) and decreased stroke angles resulted in larger peak accelerations. Further investigation revealed that these results are likely influenced by strong relationships for the high-point group, as there was often no clear trend evident for midpoint and low-point groups. Conclusion: Findings show that various propulsion approaches exist across classification groups, with this information potentially informing individual wheelchair setups and training programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prescription of wheelchair rugby chairs is difficult due to the range of athlete impairment types and severities in the sport, difficulty in adjusting wheelchair settings, and assessing on-court performance. Currently, elite players rely on experiential knowledge (personal, coaches, and support staff) to select an appropriate set-up. Technological advancements, such as with inertial measurement units and processing algorithms, and representative testing approaches, has improved the potential for assessing set-ups at an individual level. An orthogonal design approach was implemented using an adjustable wheelchair to investigate the effect of seat height, seat depth, seat angle, and tyre pressure on performance, mobility, and propulsion kinematics. Six elite wheelchair rugby players completed testing in nine individually tailored wheelchair set-ups while monitoring both quantitative and qualitative measures of performance. From this testing, a recommended set-up was compared with the current set-up for each individual. A single case-study approach shows how the assessment method identifies parameter settings that can potentially improve performance. Three of six players reported a blind preference for the recommended set-up over the current set-up, whilst remaining players often displayed similar performance between their current and recommended set-ups. This approach can improve upon the current prescription process for rugby wheelchairs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inertial measurement units (IMUs) provide a practical solution for attaining key performance data for wheelchair sports. The effects of IMU placement position on the identification of propulsion characteristics are unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the variability in the reliability of cycle time measurements (time between hand contacts) across IMU locations on the chair frame (axle housings), and wheels (axle, push rim, outer rim), on both the left and right sides (n = 8). Contacts were defined by spikes in the resultant acceleration data, corresponding to impact between the hands and push rim, and verified against motion capture. Five elite wheelchair racing athletes propelled at racing speeds on a treadmill. Excellent inter-rater Intraclass Correlation Coefficient values indicated high reliability and repeatability for both motion capture and IMU signal analysis approaches (R = 0.997, p < 0.001 and R = 0.990, p < 0.001, respectively). The best results were (as determined by the best between method agreement) were observed for IMUs located on the frame. Detection reliability was positively associated with signal-to-noise ratio of the acceleration data. The IMU assessment approach facilitates an automated processing capability, which is an improvement to the currently used video analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Egon Brunswik proposed the concept of "representative design" for psychological experimentation, which has historically been overlooked or confused with another of Brunswik's terms, ecological validity. In this article, we reiterate the distinction between these two important concepts and highlight the relevance of the term representative design for sports psychology, practice, and experimental design. We draw links with ideas on learning design in the constraints-led approach to motor learning and nonlinear pedagogy. We propose the adoption of a new term, representative learning design, to help sport scientists, experimental psychologists, and pedagogues recognize the potential application of Brunswik's original concepts, and to ensure functionality and action fidelity in training and learning environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]