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The efficacy and safety of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) booster vaccines remain limited. We investigated the immunogenicity and adverse events of the third dose of mRNA vaccines in healthy adults.Volunteers vaccinated with two doses of the adenoviral vaccine (ChAdOx1) 12 weeks before were administered with an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. These were divided into three groups, full-dose mRNA-1273 (group 1); half-dose mRNA-1273 (group 2); and full-dose BNT-162b2 (group 3). Primary outcomes included serum anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike immunoglobulin G (IgG) titers and neutralizing antibody titers against B.1.1.7 (alpha), B.1.617.2 (delta), and B.1.1.529 (omicron) variants. Secondary outcomes included the evaluation of humoral and cellular immunity and vaccine-associated adverse events after the boost.Totally 300 participants were recruited, and 298 participants were enrolled. For all three groups, an increase in anti-SARS-CoV-2 spike IgG geometric mean titers (30.12- to 71.80-fold) and neutralizing antibody titers against the alpha variant (69.80- to 173.23-folds), delta variant (132.69- to 324.63-folds), and omicron variant (135.36- to 222.37-folds) were observed on day 28. All groups showed robust T- and B-cell responses after boosting. Adverse events were overall mild and transient but with higher prevalence and severity in group 1 participants than in other groups.Third dose mRNA COVID-19 vaccines markedly enhanced cellular and humoral responses and were safe. Immunological responses and adverse events were higher in individuals receiving the full-dose mRNA-1273 vaccine, followed by a half-dose mRNA-1273 vaccine and BNT-162b2 vaccine.

Antigen-specific lung-resident memory T cells (TRMs) constitute the first line of defense that mediates rapid protection against respiratory pathogens and inspires novel vaccine designs against infectious pandemic threats, yet effective means of inducing TRMs, particularly via non-viral vectors, remain challenging. Here, we demonstrate safe and potent induction of lung-resident TRMs using a biodegradable polymeric nanoshell that co-encapsulates antigenic peptides and TLR9 agonist CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG-ODN) in a virus-mimicking structure. Through subcutaneous priming and intranasal boosting, the combinatorial nanoshell vaccine elicits prominent lung-resident CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that surprisingly show better durability than live viral infections. In particular, nanoshells containing CpG-ODN and a pair of conserved class I and II major histocompatibility complex-restricted influenza nucleoprotein-derived antigenic peptides are demonstrated to induce near-sterilizing immunity against lethal infections with influenza A viruses of different strains and subtypes in mice, resulting in rapid elimination of replicating viruses. We further examine the pulmonary transport dynamic and optimal composition of the nanoshell vaccine conducive for robust TRM induction as well as the benefit of subcutaneous priming on TRM replenishment. The study presents a practical vaccination strategy for inducing protective TRM-mediated immunity, offering a compelling platform and critical insights in the ongoing quest toward a broadly protective vaccine against universal influenza as well as other respiratory pathogens.

Neurotrophins are a collection of structurally and functionally related proteins. They play important roles in many aspects of neural development, survival, and plasticity. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to different levels of central nervous tissue destruction and cellular repair through various compensatory mechanisms promoted by the injured brain. Many studies have shown that neurotrophins are key modulators of neuroinflammation, apoptosis, blood–brain barrier permeability, memory capacity, and neurite regeneration. The expression of neurotrophins following TBI is affected by the severity of injury, genetic polymorphism, and different post-traumatic time points. Emerging research is focused on the potential therapeutic applications of neurotrophins in managing TBI. We conducted a comprehensive review by organizing the studies that demonstrate the role of neurotrophins in the management of TBI.

Antigen-specific lung-resident memory T cells (TRMs) constitute the first line of defense that mediates rapid protection against respiratory pathogens and inspires novel vaccine designs against infectious pandemic threats, yet effective means of inducing TRMs, particularly via non-viral vectors, remain challenging. Here, we demonstrate safe and potent induction of lung-resident TRMs using a biodegradable polymeric nanoshell that co-encapsulates antigenic peptides and TLR9 agonist CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG-ODN) in a virus-mimicking structure. Through subcutaneous priming and intranasal boosting, the combinatorial nanoshell vaccine elicits prominent lung-resident CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that surprisingly show better durability than live viral infections. In particular, nanoshells containing CpG-ODN and a pair of conserved class I and II major histocompatibility complex-restricted influenza nucleoprotein-derived antigenic peptides are demonstrated to induce near-sterilizing immunity against lethal infections with influenza A viruses of different strains and subtypes in mice, resulting in rapid elimination of replicating viruses. We further examine the pulmonary transport dynamic and optimal composition of the nanoshell vaccine conducive for robust TRM induction as well as the benefit of subcutaneous priming on TRM replenishment. The study presents a practical vaccination strategy for inducing protective TRM-mediated immunity, offering a compelling platform and critical insights in the ongoing quest toward a broadly protective vaccine against universal influenza as well as other respiratory pathogens., Graphical Abstract, Nanoshell vaccines encapsulating CpG and both MHC-I and MHC-II-restricted conserved peptides derived from influenza virus proteomes can elicit robust CD4+ and CD8+ lung-resident memory T cells (TRMs) and circulatory memory T cells through the subcutaneous priming and intranasal boosting strategy to protect against influenza viruses of different strains and subtypes.

Peptide-based T cell vaccines targeting the conserved epitopes of influenza virus can provide cross-protection against distantly related strains, but they are generally not immunogenic. Foreign antigen-specific regulatory T (Treg) cells are induced under subimmunogenic conditions peripherally, although their development and role in vaccine-mediated antiviral immunity is unclear. Here, we demonstrated primary vaccination with peptides alone significantly induced antigen-specific Foxp3+ Treg cells, which were further expanded by repeated vaccination with unadjuvanted peptides. Certain adjuvants, including CpG, suppressed the induction and expansion of antigen-specific Treg cells by peptide vaccination. Interestingly, secondary influenza virus infection significantly increased the frequency of preexisting antigen-specific Treg cells, although primary infection barely induced them. Importantly, specific depletion of vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells promoted influenza viral clearance, indicating their inhibitory role in vivo. Immunization with CpG-adjuvanted peptides by the subcutaneous prime-intranasal-boost strategy restricted the recruitment and accumulation of antigen-specific Treg cells in lung, and stimulated robust T cell immunity. Finally, subcutaneous prime-intranasal-boost immunization with CpG-adjuvanted peptides or whole-inactivated influenza vaccines protected mice from heterosubtypic influenza virus infection. In conclusion, antigen-specific Treg cells induced by peptide vaccines attenuate the antiviral immunity against influenza virus infection. CpG-adjuvanted peptide vaccines provide heterosubtypic influenza protection probably by inhibiting Treg development and enhancing T cell immunity.

Peptide vaccines are an ideal strategy to induce cross-protective T cell immunity against a broad range of influenza virus strains, but they are subimmunogenic and tend to induce regulatory T (Treg) cells. Our previous study has shown that adjuvanted peptide vaccines can suppress the development of antigen-specific Treg cells. MF59 is the first oil-in-water adjuvant approved for protein-based influenza vaccine, which enhances humoral and Th2 cellular immune responses. However, the role of MF59 in peptide-based vaccines regarding the induction of T cell immunity is unknown. We thus investigated the effects of MF59-adjuvanted peptide vaccines on antigen-specific T cell immunity against influenza virus infection. Using OT-I and OT-II TCR transgenic T cells, we found that the MF59-adjuvanted cognate OVA peptide vaccines induced a significant portion of OT-II Treg cells in primary immunization. However, MF59-adjuvanted peptide vaccine could prevent the expansion of pre-existing antigen-specific Treg cells. Of note, primary influenza virus infection induced a negligible portion of antigen-specific Treg cells, but secondary influenza virus infection drove the expansion of pre-existing Treg cells. Interestingly, swapping of the sequential immunizations with MF59-peptide vaccination and influenza virus infection resulted in very different levels of antigen-specific Treg cells, suggesting that the first immunization experience affects the development of antigen-specific Treg cells. Finally, MF59-peptide vaccines stimulated the production of IFN-γ and TNF-α of CD4 and CD8 T cells. In conclusion, MF59-peptide vaccine exhibits a unique feature in stimulation of antigen-specific T cell immunity.

T cell immunity targeting the conserved epitopes of influenza virus has the potential to provide cross-protection against distinctly-related strains. Peptide vaccines are an ideal strategy to induce specific antiviral T cell immunity, but subimmunogenic stimulation by peptide vaccines tend to induce regulatory T (Treg) cells. However, it remains unclear about the roles of vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells in vivo. Here, we aimed to investigate how vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells respond during acute influenza virus infection, and the effects of adjuvants on them. By adoptive transfer experiments with OT-II TCR transgenic T cells, we found that the OVA OT-II peptide vaccine induced Treg cells and secondary vaccination further expanded them. Infection with influenza virus containing the OVA OT-II peptide also drove the expansion of pre-existing vaccine-induced Treg cells. Importantly, specific depletion of vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells enhanced the antiviral immunity. Vaccination combined with adjuvants, especially with CpG, suppressed the development of vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells. Finally, CpG-adjuvanted OVA protein or whole inactivated influenza vaccine by the subcutaneous-prime-intranasal-boost strategy reduced the ratio of antigen-specific Treg cells in lung and protected mice from the heterosubtypic influenza infection. In conclusion, unadjuvanted peptide vaccines promoted antigen-specific Treg cells, which were further expanded upon acute influenza infection. The CpG adjuvant restricted the development of vaccine-induced antigen-specific Treg cells, and enhanced the antiviral T cell immunity against heterosubtypic influenza infection.

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infects the majority of the human population and establishes latency by maintaining viral genomes in neurons of sensory ganglia. Latent virus can undergo reactivation to cause recurrent infection. Both primary and recurrent infections can cause devastating diseases, including encephalitis and corneal blindness. Acyclovir is used to treat patients, but virus resistance to acyclovir is frequently reported. Recent in vitro findings reveal that pretreatment of cells with tranylcypromine (TCP), a drug widely used in the clinic to treat neurological disorders, restrains HSV-1 gene transcription by inhibiting the histone-modifying enzyme lysine-specific demethylase 1. The present study was designed to examine the anti-HSV-1 efficacy of TCP in vivo because of the paucity of reports on this issue. Using the murine model, we found that TCP decreased the severity of wild-type-virus-induced encephalitis and corneal blindness, infection with the acyclovir-resistant (thymidine kinase-negative) HSV-1 mutant, and tissue viral loads. Additionally, TCP blocked in vivo viral reactivation in trigeminal ganglia. These results support the therapeutic potential of TCP for controlling HSV-1 infection.