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This review critically assesses scientific literature in order to determine whether alcoholic beverages can positively or negatively affect the incidence and severity of immune-mediated disorders, including autoimmune diseases. Few scientific studies explore the association between alcoholic beverages and the immune system, in contrast to the extensive literature dedicated to the cardiovascular system. Because wine is the most investigated product in this review, it does not take into account studies that evaluate the role of alcohol itself without specifying the beverages included (e.g., wine, spirits and beer). The analysis of the data regarding the diseases reviewed here (allergies, celiac disease, the common cold and COVID-19, chronic inflammation bowel diseases, type 1 diabetes, dermatitis herpetiformis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and thyroid disorders) revealed that, in principle (although with differences between the various pathologies), moderate consumption of wine does not negatively affect the risk of development or the progression of immune-mediated diseases. In some cases, the effect is mainly attributable to the alcohol itself, in others the wine is responsible for a more favourable trend compared to other alcoholic beverages. This review was limited by the scarcity of available papers, so that new prospective studies on the association between wine consumption and immune-mediated diseases should also be specifically designed to draw more solid conclusions.

Vitis vinifera L., commonly known as grapes, is one of the most widely cultivated crops worldwide, with over 80% used for wine production. However, the winemaking process generates substantial residues, including grape pomace (GP), wine lees, and wastewater, which can pose significant environmental and economic challenges. Among these, GP stands out not only as a waste product but also as a rich source of polyphenols—bioactive compounds with recognized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Recent advancements have expanded the application of GP-derived extracts, particularly in the health and food industries, due to their potent bioactive properties. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the valorization of GP, focusing on its phenolic composition and therapeutic potential. It evokes innovative, environmentally friendly extraction techniques and integrated methods for the chemical analysis of these valuable compounds. Additionally, the health benefits of GP polyphenols are explored, with recent experimental findings examining their metabolism and highlighting the key role of gut microbiota in these processes. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of the biological activity of GP extracts and underscore their growing significance as a high-added-value product. By illustrating how winemaking by-products can be transformed into natural therapeutic agents, this review emphasizes the importance of sustainable development and eco-friendly waste management practices, significantly contributing to the advancement of a circular economy.

The aim of this study was to better understand the colloidal phenomenon involved in the fining process and to determine how many polyphenols are impacted in this process. Different types and compositions of fining agent were used to fine the wine. Some of them were pure and based on animal proteins and plant proteins, while others comprised a mixture of different matter, like PVPP and plant proteins, or PVPP, plant proteins and bentonite. Before and after fining, five different analyses were performed on the wine to characterise the polyphenolic composition and content. In order to determine polyphenol loss more precisely during fining, a new method was developed to quantify and characterise polyphenol precipitate using fining agents. This new method allowed us to find some drastic differences between the fining agents in term of total polyphenol precipitation, as well as in the composition of the precipitated compounds. Indeed, a group of anthocyanins present in low levels in wine (i.e., p-coumaroylated anthocyanins) became the most represented in the fining precipitate. Similarly, differences were also observed between the fining agents in the composition of precipitated condensed tannins. Fining agents without PVPP did not precipitate monomeric or dimeric flavan-3-ol or crown tannins. Some differences were also observed between the fining agent composed of plant-derived protein and that comprising gelatin.

Global warming is directly linked to a lower concentration in organic acids in grape berries, leading to higher pHs in wine. Because of this lack of acidity, many important factors are impacted, as wine acidity and pH play a crucial role in various equilibriums. Indeed, the lower acidity and the higher pH modify the parameters of wine, such as free and molecular sulfur dioxide availability, colour and sensory aspects. Therefore, it is an ongoing challenge for winemakers to deal with wine acidification and thus preserve wine physico-chemical properties and prevent early spoilage due to microbiological instability induced by high pH. Different acidification methods are allowed by the OIV, chemical acidification being one the most common, followed by physical acidification and microbiological acidification. This review examines these three methods of acidification. The first part details chemical acidification and gives a complete description of various organic acids used in winemaking, and their different properties and regulations; the second part focuses on physical acidification, such as cation exchange resins and electrodialysis; and the last part briefly reviews the novelty of microbiological acidification in wine.

During bottling aging, the wine comes into contact with the cork stopper due to the horizontal position of the bottle. The release of compounds, such as cork phenolic compounds, thus take place between the cork and the wine, depending on the type of cork stopper and the surface treatments applied. Many publications describe the extraction of these phenolic compounds in wine or hydroalcoholic solutions from natural corks, but few address microagglomerated corks, which are increasingly used by winemakers to seal their bottles. The aim of this study was therefore to compare the polyphenols, mainly hydrolysable tannins, transferred from natural and microagglomerated corks treated with supercritical CO2 into hydroalcoholic solutions. For this purpose, polyphenols released in macerates of natural and microagglomerated cork stoppers were identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-ESI-QQQ. Suberic acid was also quantified. In this study, despite the high intra-“natural cork stopper” variability, significant differences were found between both types of stoppers for all polyphenols, the agglomerated corks releasing significantly less polyphenols; i.e., 25 times less. In contrast, suberic acid was extracted from both types of corks in similar concentrations; therefore, its extractability was not impacted by the type of stopper. A sensory profile was also carried out on the macerates. Macerates of natural cork stoppers were perceived with notes of “cardboard, dust, plank, wood” and “cork taint” significantly higher than supercritical CO2 treated microagglomerated cork stopper macerates. Moreover, the natural cork macerate with the highest content in polyphenol was perceived as being more bitter than that of microagglomerated cork stoppers.

During barrel production, the oak undergoes several processing stages that contribute to wine and brandy flavours. The toasting step is considered to have the most important influence on oak wood chemical composition as it causes the thermodegradation of some oak wood components. However, the effect of toasting on distilled spirit quality has not been thoroughly studied. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the impact of barrel toasting on the cognac eau-de-vie sensory profile.

Since 2011, Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers (FIC) exempted alcoholic beverages above 1.2% abv from the mandatory list of ingredients and the nutrition declaration. In 2017, the European Commission invited the alcohol beverages industry to respond to consumers’ expectations and to present, within a year, a proposal of self-regulation on ingredients and nutritional information covering the whole sector.

The lower content of organic acids in grape berries due to global warming, and therefore high pHs, is forcing winegrowers to acidify must or wine to preserve their microbiological stability and their physico-chemical equilibrium. Acidification is essential to avoid damageable consequences on the colour and the sensory quality of the wines. Of the possible modes of acidification, chemical acidification is still the most common one used by OIV country members. It consists of adding lactic, malic, tartaric or citric acids to the musts and wines. Fumaric acid, with its high acidifying power and availability on the market, could be an interesting alternative at lower cost than other acids. Very few studies describing the effects of the addition of this acid on the chemical and organoleptic quality of musts and wines have been published. The present study therefore investigated the impacts of fumaric acid - namely its solubility, acidifying power, and impacts on colour and phenolic compounds - on musts and wines in comparison to other acids. Sensory analyses were also carried out to evaluate the perception threshold of each acid in the wines and compare how the acids are perceived. Except for its low solubility, fumaric acid seems to be a good candidate for an economic alternative to wine acidification. It had the highest acidifying power and slightly affected wine chemistry and organoleptic qualities. Further studies are needed to determine the appropriate step during which this acid should be added during winemaking.

Two of the main challenges of Mediterranean viticulture is low water quality and the risk of increasing concentrations of mineral salts in the root zone. This work was undertaken to study the impact of saline deficit irrigation on grape and wine phenolic composition, as well as on the sensory profile of the wines. The experiment was carried out during three consecutive years (2016-2018) in a commercial vineyard of cv. Monastrell (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted onto 1103P rootstock located in D.O. Jumilla (SE Spain). Three watering regimes were carried out: i) the control (“Control”): the vines were irrigated with water of standard quality, ii) Sulfate treatment (“Sul”): the vines were irrigated with saline water (Na₂SO₄ + MgSO4), and iii) Chloride treatment (“Chl”): the vines were irrigated with saline water (NaCl). The same amount of irrigation water was applied to all the treatments. The water electrical conductivity was 1.8 dS/m for Control and 5 dS/m for the saline treatments (Sul and Chl). Both the Sul and Chl treatments reduced the berry weight in all the study years compared to Control, although this difference was statistically significant in the last year only (p ≤ 0.05). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in the grape quality parameters. However, the saline treatments slightly increased grape total soluble solids (TSS) in two out of the three study years compared to Control. Regarding the phenolic composition, no significant differences (p > 0.05) among treatments were found in grapes and wines. In general, the wines from vines irrigated with saline waters received the best scores by the panel in the sensory profile analysis. The use of saline waters could be employed in the case of water scarcity, as long as the vineyard is planted on a rootstock tolerant to salinity, such as 1103P, and the vineyard soil has a texture that favours leaching.

Although the detrimental effects of heavy drinking in terms of health are well-documented in the literature, there are inconsistent findings regarding the safety of light-to-moderate alcohol consumption. In particular, little is still known about the consumption of specific alcoholic beverages in combination with dietary habits and lifestyle, which in turn could influence health status. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarise and critically evaluate the evidence of a relationship between preference for alcoholic beverages and consumer dietary and lifestyle habits. A literature search retrieved 3,887 articles. By removing duplicates and articles which were not relevant, the final number of articles was 26. The adherence to a healthier diet and lifestyle was generally observed in light-to-moderate alcohol consumers, especially when wine was the preferred beverage. Considering the potentially strong impact of drinking patterns on health and the risk of developing chronic diseases, the data summarised in this review highlight that alcoholic beverage preferences, drinking patterns, dietary patterns and lifestyle should be studied together. Any future epidemiological studies should analyse the relationship between alcohol consumption and the abovementioned correlations with respect to impact on health.

Condensed tannins play a major role in the quality of red wine. After grape extraction, they quickly evolve thanks to different oxidation mechanisms. Recently, NMR identified a new sub class of condensed tannins, named crown procyanidins, in red wine. The crown procyanidins’ tetramer exhibits a macrocyclic structure composed of four (-)-epicatechin with an unusual cavity in the center of the molecule. These new tannins exposed a higher polarity than the linear tannins. In this work, the evolution kinetics of these crown procyanidins during the winemaking process and after aging of red wine in bottles were studied. Samples’ quantification was analyzed by UPLC-UV-Q-TOF. The concentration of cyclic and non-cyclic procyanidins was compared. During the winemaking process, crown procyanidins are mainly extracted at the beginning of the alcoholic fermentation and they remain stable until the end of the winemaking process. The high polarity and solubility of this new molecule in water was confirmed. During the aging of red wine in bottles, crown procyanidins’ concentrations are stable, whereas the non-cyclic tannins decrease dramatically. Finally, a strong oxygenation experiment confirmed the crown procyanidins’ resistance to oxidation and unique skills.

The phenolic, aromatic and sensory evolution of a red wine under different oak aging conditions was evaluated. Neither phenolic nor fruity aromatic contents and profiles were impacted by the aging container or the derived oak products used. Meanwhile, a different woody aroma content was observed depending on the exposed wood area to wine volume ratio. From a sensory point of view, higher smoky, vanilla and/or spicy flavours were identified for all oak-aged wines when compared to the control (stainless steel tank), but they were all perceived as being as fruity as the control.

Los taninos enológicos se utilizan habitualmente en la elaboración del vino por diversos motivos (Versari et al., 2013; Vignault et al., 2018), entre los que destacan su acción inhibitoria de la actividad lacasa en las vendimias afectadas por la podredumbre gris y la protección del color del vino frente al pardeamiento. No obstante, hasta hace muy poco este efecto anti-lacasa era tan solo empírico sin que existieran pruebas científicas de ello. Por esta razón, la OIV creo un grupo de trabajo específico para estudiar las verdaderas aplicaciones de los taninos enológicos. Fruto de sus investigaciones son los resultados que se presentan a continuación que demuestran la efectividad de los taninos enológicos para inhibir la actividad lacasa y proteger de este modo el color del vino (Vignault et al., 2019; Vignault et al., 2020).

The contamination of grape berries by Botrytis cinerea can drastically damage wine quality, in particular causing colour degradation. In musts obtained from botrytised grapes, SO2 addition is the main means of avoiding oxidation damage due to laccases excreted by the pathogen. However, consumers are becoming increasingly reluctant to accept SO2 addition to wine. Oenological tannins are used for fining wines because of their colloidal properties, and for wine colour stabilisation due to their ability to condense with anthocyanins. They are also known for their antioxidant and antioxidasic properties. They were thus investigated in the present study for their potential as an alternative to SO2 against laccase oxidation. The impact of various types of oenological tannins on musts and wines was studied once added to musts obtained from the Merlot cultivar, comprising 20 % and 50 % botrytised grapes. Laccase activity, antioxidant capacity, composition of phenolic compounds, spectrophotometric and CIELAB colour parameters were assessed in the musts and wines. Sensory analyses were also performed on 3-month-old wines to evaluate the visual, olfactory and gustative consequences of tannin addition. At a 50 % botrytisation rate, the addition of any type of oenological tannins (at a concentration of 100 g/hL) had no effect on laccase activity and did not protect phenolic compounds. However, at the same concentration and at a 20 % botrytisation rate, proanthocyanidin tannins from grape skin were found to be the most promising tannins with simultaneous protective effects, such as an inhibitory effect on laccase enzymes, protection of colour from complete degradation and preservation of some procyanidin compounds. Oenological tannins are promising candidates for protecting wines from Botrytis damage and they induce a differential effect according to their origin and structure. They could be used to reduce the amount of SO2 that is added during vatting. More research is needed to confirm and better understand the mode of action of various tannins at levels lower than the 20 % botrytised rate tested in the present study.

During fermentation or ageing of wines, oak wood is commonly used in form of barrels, casks or derived oak products (chips, winewoods, tankstaves, among others). It is well known that aroma, structure, astringency, bitterness, aromatic persistence and colour may change as a result of wine‒wood contact. A full-scale experimentation was performed under different oak ageing conditions in order to evaluate colour, phenolic, aromatic and sensory differences among final red wines (9‒months ageing). Oenological parameters and wine colour were not impacted by ageing modality. At the end of ageing, no differences were found in total phenolic and tannin contents. Regardless of the ageing modality, total content and profile of fruity volatiles were globally maintained with regard to control (≥ 86 %). In contrast, the higher the surface of wine‒wood contact per unit of wine volume, the greater the extraction of woody aromas. Thus, barrels led to wines with the highest level of woody aromas (515‒864 µg/L), followed by cask modalities (430‒470 µg/L). From a sensory point of view, descriptors highlighting the woody character of wine (vanilla, spicy) were enhanced in all oak‒aged wines when compared to control. However, our results indicate that a masking effect of fruity aroma by oak wood did not occur, since all modalities were perceived as fruity as the control. Thus, each oak ageing modality may lead to wines with a different woody character, without no impact on fruity perception, allowing wineries to achieve the targeted aromatic profile, good structure and just the right balance between fruity and woody aromas.

Although naturally produced macerated white wines are increasingly popular, their biological effects are rarely studied. As wines containing no preservatives, they are highly susceptible to oxidation after bottle opening. Our aims were therefore: (1) to compare the antioxidant and direct vasodilatory activity of standard (W) and polyphenols-rich macerated white wine (PW); (2) to examine effects of oxidation and browning of PW, associated with its exposure to air for 24 (24 h-OxPW) and 48 h (48 h-OxPW), on measured biological activities.Total phenolics content, direct vasodilatory and antioxidant activity of PW were much higher than those of W. Overall effects of up to 48 h-exposure to air on levels and composition of examined phenolics were minor. Similarly, exposure to air and associated browning did not affect maximal vasodilatory and antioxidant activity of PW.Vasodilatory potency, however, increasingly weakened with exposure to air as oxidized samples had higher half maximal effective concentrations than intact PW.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other chronic and debilitating neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) impose a substantial medical, emotional, and financial burden on individuals and society. The origin of PD is unknown due to a complex combination of hereditary and environmental risk factors. However, over the last several decades, a significant amount of available data from clinical and experimental studies has implicated neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, dysregulated protein degradation, and mitochondrial dysfunction as the primary causes of PD neurodegeneration. The new gene-editing techniques hold great promise for research and therapy of NDs, such as PD, for which there are currently no effective disease-modifying treatments. As a result, gene therapy may offer new treatment options, transforming our ability to treat this disease. We present a detailed overview of novel gene-editing delivery vehicles, which is essential for their successful implementation in both cutting-edge research and prospective therapeutics. Moreover, we review the most recent advancements in CRISPR-based applications and gene therapies for a better understanding of treating PD. We explore the benefits and drawbacks of using them for a range of gene-editing applications in the brain, emphasizing some fascinating possibilities.

Ellagitannins are the main extractible oak wood phenolic compounds. These compounds are responsible for high wood durability and they can contribute to wine and spirits organoleptic quality (colour, astringency and bitterness). Despite their importance, their presence and forms in distilled spirits are not well known. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop and validate a measurement methodology and to quantify Cognac oak wood ellagitannins.

Cork taint, generally recognized by a musty or moldy off-flavor, is a serious problem facing the industry today when putting wines on the market. To assess the effectiveness of a food-grade plastic film in removing the compounds concerned, trials were carried out under real conditions. It was found that enological parameters as well as color are maintained, and there is no absorption of phenolic compounds or oak aromas. The plastic film improves the organoleptic quality of wines contaminated with haloanisoles, by reducing the concentration of compounds that give the cork taint and mask oaky and/or fruity aromas.

Anthocyanins are extracted from grape skins during maceration and are responsible for the red colour of wine. Their contribution to in-mouth sensations is mainly related to their interactions with condensed tannins, which are largely responsible for wine astringency and mouthfeel-related features. Recently, the influence of several groups of polyphenols, together with other relevant non-phenolic wine constituents,was investigated in terms of their ability to modify the sensory perception of condensed tannins. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of three acylation groups of anthocyanins (glucoside, acetylglucoside, and p-coumaroylglucoside) extracted from grape skins on in-mouth related features. An extract of total anthocyanins and their individual fractions were tasted using different sensory approaches (triangle test, check-all-that apply and descriptive analysis) and compared to polyphenols extracted from grape skins and seeds. The investigated sensations were overall astringency and astringency sub-qualities, which were divided into two groups: sensation during tasting (in-mouth, particulates) and sensation after expectoration (surface smoothness). Bitterness was also studied. Anthocyanin fractions were added to skin and seed extracts and tasted as mixtures to find out if anthocyanins modify in-mouth perception. Although the anthocyanin fractions showed a low sensory impact, total anthocyanins and the glucoside fraction were perceived at the concentration ranges found in wines (400 mg/L), and they were found to influence astringency intensity and soft astringency sub-qualities, such as “velvety” and “chalky”. The addition of glucoside anthocyanin (400 mg/L) to skin and seed extract (1000 mg/L) modified in-mouth perception; in particular, seed extract was perceived as being more astringent and was characterised by harsher astringency sub-qualities (surface smoothness and particulates). In contrast, the addition of glucoside anthocyanin to the skin extract led to lower surface smoothness, although the intensity of overall astringency was unchanged. These results confirm that the presence of anthocyanins can modify the perception of in-mouth sensations and interact to different extents with other polyphenols, thus leading to the modification of the intensity of astringency and its sub-qualities.

Polyphenolic compounds are considered to have a major impact on the quality of red wines. Sensory perception, such as astringency and bitterness, are mainly related to condensed tannin, while colour intensity and evolution is due to anthocyanin composition. Therefore, the quick analytical measurement of phenolic compounds appears to be a real challenge for wine monitoring. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy with chemometrics are good candidates for predicting polyphenolic contents in wines, but they have not yet been compared in terms of efficiency of each wavelength area. Thus, the possibility of combining the two areas has not been investigated. This work sought to determine the tannin and anthocyanin content of ninety-two wines. The wine selection covered different vintages, varieties and regions. Tannin concentration was analysed by precipitation with protein and polysaccharide and by the Bate-Smith assay. Free anthocyanin concentration was analysed by bisulfite bleaching and the monomers/polymers ratio was analysed using the Adams-Harbertson method. Molecular anthocyanin concentration was also obtained by HPLC/UV-vis. Two spectra were collected using UV-vis and FTIR devices. The data collected were statistically analysed using the partial least squares (PLS) regression method. The correlations obtained were relevant to both of the spectrum areas studied, with a coefficient of determination for cross validation larger than 0.7 for most parameters studied. While the two spectroscopic methods gave almost identical results, FTIR indicated higher robustness for the prediction of tannin concentration. Conversely, UV-vis appeared to be more relevant when determining anthocyanin concentration and evolution. Finally, the models obtained when combining the two spectrum areas gave slightly better results. When a selection of different visible wavelengths were added to the FTIR spectrum, the results showed that the prediction of anthocyanin parameters improved considerably, thus highlighting the importance of the visible area when estimating these compounds.

Since 1988, alcohol has been classified as a Group 1 carcinogen, the highest level of risk, by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). In fact, alcohol consumption is the third leading risk factor for disease and mortality in Europe. It accounts for 4.65 % of the global burden of both injury and disease, making it one of the most preventable causes of injury and death. Tissues in closest contact with alcohol when it is ingested, such as those of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus and larynx, have at greater risk of becoming cancerous than other body tissues. The consumption of alcohol is also associated with an increased risk of stomach, colon, rectum, liver, female breast and ovarian cancers. Conversely, recent studies suggest that red wine components inhibit colony formation of human breast cancer and esophageal carcinoma cells, suggesting that wine-derived phenolic compounds may be inhibitory, in contrast to the alcohol component of wine. Because of a lack of systematic studies dealing with the different types of cancer and alcoholic beverages and wine in particular, in this narrative review we summarize the general risk of cancer linked to the consumption of alcoholic beverages, including wine, according to type of cancer, with 140 extracted relevant references from 1966 to 2020. Mostly epidemiological studies concerning large cohorts have been selected. For the cancers of the upper aerodigestive tract, liver, colorectum, breast cancer, pancreatic, prostate, an excessive consumption and/or misuse of alcoholic beverages is correlated with increased risk. Conversely a probable decreased risk has been found for renal/kidney cancers, as well as for Non-Hodgkin lymphomas, such as thyroid lymphomas, associated with the moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. There is no evidence of ovarian, gastric, head and neck, and lung cancer being linked to the moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. Cancer is a multifactorial disease, and many factors contribute to effects on health status, usually being both genetic and environmental. Habits (smoking, dietary/lifestyle pattern/ habits, physical activity), should also be taken into account when defining appropriate consumption frequencies for different types of alcoholic drink (wine, beer, spirits). Further research is needed related to wine consumption in the context of a healthy dietary and lifestyle pattern given health-promoting constituents of wine and its effects on cancer incidence.

White wine is increasingly aged in oak barrels to enhance its stability, aromatic complexity and organoleptic properties. Thus, this research aimed to highlight chemical and sensory differences in Sauvignon Blanc wines linked to barrel size. Oenological parameters, color, total phenolics and fruity aroma were not generally impacted by barrel size. Meanwhile, the smaller the barrel, the higher the extraction of oak woody volatiles. From an organoleptic point of view, Sauvignon Blanc varietal aromas and typicity seemed to be better preserved by 500 L barrels.

Aim: The aim of the present study was to use Fourier transform infrared (FT–IR) spectroscopy with chemometrics to develop partial least squares (PLS) models to predict the concentrations of various anthocyanins during red wine fermentation. Methods and results: Must and wine samples were collected during fermentation. To maximize diversity, 12 different fermentations, of two different vintages and two different varieties, were followed. The anthocyanin composition of the samples was characterized by using different methods described in the literature: the concentration of free anthocyanins was determined by bisulphite bleaching, the concentration of molecular anthocyanins was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet–visible detection, and the ratio of monomeric anthocyanins to polymeric anthocyanins was determined using the Adams–Harbertson assay. Finally, the data were analysed statistically by PLS regression to quantify laboratory-determined anthocyanin from FT–IR spectra. The correlations obtained showed good results for a large percentage of parameters studied, with the determination coefficient (R2) for both calibration and cross-validation exceeding 0.8. The models for molecular anthocyanins appeared to overestimate their prediction, owing to intercorrelation with other parameters. Comparison of the data for each vintage indicated no apparent matrix effect per year, and data for other vintages should be compared to validate this hypothesis. The best models were those for monomeric or polymeric pigments and free anthocyanins. Conclusions: By using FT–IR spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics, it is possible to create predictive models to estimate concentrations of anthocyanins and changes in global anthocyanin parameters during winemaking. Significance and impact of the study: These results improve our understanding of anthocyanin prediction using FT–IR spectroscopy with chemometrics and pave the way for its use as a process control tool for the winemaker. They also highlight the propensity of chemometrics to overestimate certain predicted values when close parameters intercorrelate.

Accumulating evidence suggests that regular moderate consumption of wine can positively influence risk factors associated with cardiovascular health. These effects are often attributed to grape and wine-derived phenolic compounds and their effects on risk factors such as atherosclerosis, for which mechanisms have been clearly identified, such as a decrease in the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol and reduction of oxidative stress, and an increase in nitric oxide and related restoration of endothelial function. In addition, the ethanol component of wine increases HDL-cholesterol, inhibits platelet aggregation, promotes fibrinolysis and reduces systemic inflammation. Scientific research needs to be conducted, however, before we can begin to provide science-based dietary recommendations, although there is sufficient evidence to generally recommend consuming food sources rich in bioactive compounds such as wine in moderation. This narrative review examines published evidence on the cardioprotective effects associated with wine-derived compounds, with a primary focus on the development and progression of atherosclerosis and thrombosis.

Trans-ε-viniferin (εVin) is a resveratrol dimer exhibiting promising biological activities for human health. Its bioavailability being low, the development of encapsulation methods would be used to overcome this issue. The aim of this study was to measure the consequences of the encapsulation of εVin in multilamellar liposomes on its pharmacokinetic parameters, metabolism and tissue distribution in rats. After oral administration of εVin (20 mg/kg body weight), either as free or encapsulated forms, plasmas were sequentially collected (from 0 to 4 h) as well as liver, kidneys and adipose tissues (4 h after administration) and analyzed by LC-HRMS. The glucuronide metabolites (εVG) were also produced by hemisynthesis for their quantification in plasma and tissues. The encapsulation process did not significantly modify the pharmacokinetic parameters of εVin itself. However, a significant increase of the T1/2 was noticed for εVG after administration of the encapsulated form as compared to the free form. An accumulation of εVin and εVG in adipose tissues was noticed, and interestingly a significant increase of the latter in the mesenteric one after administration of the encapsulated form was highlighted. Since adipose tissues could represent storage depots, and encapsulation allows for prolonging the exposure time of glucuronide metabolites in the organism, this could be of interest to promote their potential biological activities.

Pomegranate juice (PJ) is a rich source of ellagitannins (ETs), precursors of colonic metabolite urolithin A, which are believed to contribute to pomegranate’s neuroprotective effect. While many experimental studies involving PJ’s role in Alzheimer’s disease and hypoxic-ischemic brain injury have been conducted, our knowledge of pomegranate’s effects against Parkinson’s disease (PD) is very limited. Previously, we have reported that PJ treatment improved postural stability, which correlated well with enhancement of neuronal survival, protection against oxidative damage, and α-synuclein aggregation. Since olfactory and motor deficits are typical symptoms of PD, in this study, we aimed to investigate the capability of PJ to protect against olfactory, motoric, and neurochemical alterations. To evaluate its efficiency, Wistar rats were given a combined treatment with ROT (1.3 mg/kg b.w./day, s.c.) and PJ (500 mg/kg/day, p.o.) for 35 days. After this, we assessed the olfactory discrimination index (DI) and vertical and horizontal activities as well as levels of dopamine and its main metabolite 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in the dissected midbrain of animals. Our findings provide the first evidence that PJ treatment protects against ROT-induced DA depletion in the midbrain, which correlates well with improved olfactory function and vertical activity as well as with the presence of urolithin A in the brain.

Aim: The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of five different oenological tannins on the color of a malvidin-3-O-monoglucoside solution, and thereby assess the effectiveness of these tannins as copigments. Methods and results: Solutions containing malvidin-3-O-glucoside and different doses of copigments were prepared. The malvidin-3-O-glucoside concentration of the solutions, and color parameters, were measured after 1 and 7 days. Conclusions: On days 1 and 7, a decrease in lightness and hue, and an increase in chroma, absorption at 520 nm and wavelength of maximal absorption were observed in solutions containing the oenological tannins. A decrease in malvidin-3-O-glucoside concentration in the tannin-containing solutions compared with the control solution was detected on day 7. The extent of this decrease depended on the specific tannin. Some changes in color parameters on day 7 compared with day 1 were observed, which were probably due to the formation of new pigments. The total color difference between the different malvidin-3-O-glucoside solutions and a pure white solution was calculated to estimate the effectiveness of the different tannins as copigments. Significance and impact of the study: These results prove that supplementation with oenological tannins is a viable option for improving the color of red wines. A copigmentation index is proposed for measurement of the effectiveness of copigments.

Aims: The aim of this research was to determine and quantify the ability of enological tannins to reduce laccase activity and, consequently, to protect wine color against enzymatic browning and/or oxidasic haze. Methods and results: Botrytized grape juice with laccase activity was obtained by inoculating Botrytis cinerea in healthy mature grapes. Laccase activity was determined in grape juice before and after supplementation with enological tannins using the syringaldazine method. White micro-fermentations were performed in the presence or not of laccase activity and supplemented or not with enological tannins in order to determine how the color was affected. Similarly, red micro-fermentations were performed using white grape juice supplemented with malvidin-3-O-glucoside. All enological tannins inhibited laccase activity and protected the wine color. Conclusion: Supplementation with enological tannins is an interesting tool to inhibit laccase activity and protect the color of white wines from browning and the color of red wines from oxidasic haze. Significance and impact of the study: This is the first scientific study evidencing the inhibitory effect of enological tannins on laccase activity in winemaking conditions. Keywords: enological tannins, Botrytis cinerea, grey mould, laccase activity, contact time, dose effect

In the courses of studies on ellagitannin changes during oak wood toasting, two C-glycosidic ellagitannins were isolated from the french oak wood for the first time. These two compounds exhibited [M−H]− ion peak at m/z 1055.0631 (compound A) and at m/z 1011.0756 (compound B). A compound is named Castacrenin E and is produced by Castacrenin D oxidation. Castacrenin D is a vescalagin with an additional aromating ring to the C-1 through a C-C bond. These compounds are not only found under laboratory conditions but also in commercial oak wood representing different toasting methods and sizes. Their levels are conditioned by oak wood dimensions and toasting degree. The wood pieces with the smallest size present almost two times more compounds A and B. Moreover, the compound B is the only compound to be present in medium toasting temperatures of the smallest wood pieces. Both of them can influence either astringency sensation or bitterness taste.

Different technical cork stoppers (blend of natural cork microgranules, one-piece natural cork, agglomerated natural cork, technical cork 1+1) were compared to evaluate the effects on the phenolic, volatile profiles and dissolved oxygen in three red (Merlot, Lagrein red, St. Magdalener) and one rosé (Lagrein rosé) wines, which were stored in bottles for 12 months. Gallic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, trans-resveratrol, glutahionyl caftaric acid and protocatechuic acid did not vary remarkably during the first three months, whereas at six months a net increase was reported, followed by a clear decrease at 12 months. The same trend was observed in Lagrein rosé, but only for gallic acid. The total anthocyanins content decreased during the storage period in the four wines. Isopentyl acetate, 1-hexanol, ethyl hexanoate, 2-phenylethyl alcohol, diethyl succinate, ethyl octanoate and ethyl decanoate were the main volatile compounds. The sum of alcohols decreased in all four of the wines. The esters decreased in Merlot; however, they increased in Lagrein rosé, Lagrein red and St. Magdalener during the storage. Univariate and multivariate statistics and a sensory discriminant triangle test displayed similar influences of the different stoppers on the phenolic and volatile compounds during the whole storage duration. The changes detected in the phenolic and volatile concentrations were presumably due to the non-oxygen-mediated reactions occurring during 12 months of storage in bottle.

Pomegranate juice is a rich source of ellagitannins (ETs) believed to contribute to a wide range of pomegranate’s health benefits. While a lot of experimental studies have been devoted to Alzheimer disease and hypoxic-ischemic brain injury, our knowledge of pomegranate’s effects against Parkinson’s disease (PD) is very limited. It is suggested that its neuroprotective effects are mediated by ETs-derived metabolites—urolithins. In this study, we examined the capability of pomegranate juice for protection against PD in a rat model of parkinsonism induced by rotenone. To evaluate its efficiency, assessment of postural instability, visualization of neurodegeneration, determination of oxidative damage to lipids and α-synuclein level, as well as markers of antioxidant defense status, inflammation, and apoptosis, were performed in the midbrain. We also check the presence of plausible active pomegranate ETs-derived metabolite, urolithin A, in the plasma and brain. Our results indicated that pomegranate juice treatment provided neuroprotection as evidenced by the postural stability improvement, enhancement of neuronal survival, its protection against oxidative damage and α-synuclein aggregation, the increase in mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase activity, and maintenance of antiapoptotic Bcl-xL protein at the control level. In addition, we have provided evidence for the distribution of urolithin A to the brain.

To obtain resistant varieties to diseases without loss of organoleptic quality is a real challenge for oenology. Inter-specific hybridization of grapevines began in the 19th Century and was initially aimed at introducing pest and disease resistance in offspring. Later, several breeding programs implemented worldwide led to the development of varieties showing different characteristics such as cold-hardiness, short/long growing season,and pest resistance. . V. Vinifera grapes having preferred flavor characteristics for wine production, but they tend to be susceptible to pests, diseases, and extreme temperatures; species native to North America and East Asia are generally better adapted to surviving these stressors. But these wild species tend to be low yielding and produce wines with undesirable sensory characteristics, including high acidity, low astringency, and excessive herbaceous aromas or undesirable aromas. To be a new step innovative revolution during the 21 century, resistant varieties (actual and future) should be subject to tests in different contexts for 3 major points: - Vines can produce grapes without pesticides need - Grapes and Wines quality (chemical and safety quality) need to be compared with vines parent sources and a referential of chemical composition for secondary metabolites families (aromas, phenolics, potential spoilage compounds....) has to be realized for the new resistant varieties after different winemaking processes. - Wines need to be test (with mapping technique) for sensory perception and classify for their quality level after winemaking and during ageing process.

Grape pomace seeds and skins from different Mediterranean varieties (Grenache [GRE], Syrah [SYR], Carignan [CAR], Mourvèdre [MOU] and Alicante [ALI]) were extracted using water and water/ethanol 70% in order to develop edible extracts (an aqueous extract [EAQ] and a 70% hydro-alcoholic extract [EA70]) for potential use in nutraceutical or cosmetic formulations. In this study, global content (total polyphenols, total anthocyanins and total tannins), flavan-3-ols and anthocyanins were assessed using HPLC-UV-Fluo-MSn. In addition, extract potential was evaluated by four different assays: Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC), Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Potential assay (FRAP), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) or ABTS assay and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay. As expected, seed pomace extracts contained higher amounts of polyphenols then skin pomace extracts. Indeed, seeds from Syrah contained a particularly important amount of total polyphenols and tannins in both type of extract (up to 215.84 ± 1.47 mg of gallic acid equivalent [GAE]/g dry weight (DW) and 455.42 ± 1.84 mg/g DW, respectively). These extracts also expressed the highest antioxidant potential with every test. For skins, the maximum total phenolic was found in Alicante EAQ (196.71 ± 0.37 mg GAE/g DW) and in Syrah EA70 (224.92 ± 0.18 mg GAE/g DW). Results obtained in this article constitute a useful tool for the pre-selection of grape pomace seed and skin extracts for nutraceutical purposes.

Grenache, Syrah, Carignan Noir, Mourvèdre, Counoise and Alicante Bouchet grape seeds and skins, harvested in 2009 and 2010 in the Rhône valley area of France, and their respective pomaces remaining after vinification, were analyzed for their phenolic composition and antioxidant activity. The polyphenol content was quantified by HPLC and the Folin-Ciocalteu assay. The antioxidant potential was measured with four different assays: ORAC, FRAP, ABTS and DPPH. Seeds contained higher amounts of total polyphenols, up to 44.5 mg of gallic acid equivalent [GAE]/g dry weight in Alicante pomace, than skin extracts. The maximum total phenolic in skins was 31.6 mg GAE/g dry weight detected in 2010 Alicante pomace. Seeds also had the highest antioxidant capacity. HPLC analysis revealed that, despite the vinification process, pomaces still contained an appreciable amount of proanthocyanidins as well as several anthocyanin glycosides. Alicante and Syrah proved to be the varieties of most interest in terms of their potential development for nutraceutical purposes.

The effect of the time of wood chip addition on phenolic content, color parameters and volatile composition of a red wine made by a native Greek variety (Agiorgitiko) was evaluated. For this purpose, chips from American, French, Slavonia oak and Acacia were added in the wine during and after fermentation. Various chemical parameters of wines were studied after one, two and three months of contact with chips. The results showed that the addition of oak chips during alcoholic fermentation did not favor ellagitannin extraction and the reactions involved in tannin condensation and anthocyanin stabilization. Moreover, wines fermented with wood chips contained higher contents of whiskey lactones, eugenol, ethyl vanillate and acetate esters while their ethyl ester content was lower compared with the wines where chip addition took place after fermentation. Practical Application: The outcomes of this study would be of practical interest to winemakers since they could improve the control over the wood extraction process. When chips are added after fermentation wines seem to have a greater ageing potential compared to the wines fermented with chips due to their higher ellagitannin content and enhanced condensation reactions. On the other hand, color stabilization and tannin polymerization occur faster when chips are added during fermentation resulting in shorter ageing periods suitable for early consumed wines.

During maturation and ageing in oak barrels polyphenolic compounds from oak wood, and particularly C-glucosidic ellagitannins, can be released from wood to the wine. These ellagitannins can be involved in oxidation reactions, affecting the wine’s organoleptic properties such as astringency. In this study C-glucosidic ellagitannins and flavano-ellagitannins, acutissimins A and B and epiacutissimins A and B, as well as mongolicain A, which is the result compound of acutissimin A oxidation, were identified and quantified. The quantification was carried out by HPLC-UV-MS in 185 commercial samples from different cultivar areas (Bordeaux and Rioja), different barrel oak wood (French oak barrels and American oak barrels) and different ageing periods. The results show differences between the two zones in terms of compound concentrations. Moreover, the ageing process in bottle for Bordeaux wines are unlike Rioja wines behavior in bottle.

The effect of the botanical origin, pH level and ethanol content of different oenological tannins on the color of malvidin-3-O-monoglucoside solution, including their effectiveness as copigments, was studied. Briefly, a model wine solution (4 g/L of tartaric acid, pH 3.5 and 12% ethanol) containing 50 mg/L of malvidin-3-O-monoglucoside was prepared and supplemented with 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 g/L of commercial tannins using (−)-epicatechin as reference control copigment. Six additional model wine solutions (12% ethanol at pH 3.1, 3.5 or 3.9, and 10%, 12% or 14% ethanol at pH 3.5) were prepared as previously described. Samples were stored under airtight conditions. After a week the full absorbance spectrum in the visible range (400–800 nm) was measured and CIELAB color space was determined. These measurements, including an increase in a* (redness), a decrease in b* (yellowness) and a decrease in L* (lightness), indicated that all oenological tannins had a clear positive effect on color copigmentation. Moreover, hydrolysable tannins appeared to be better copigments than condensed tannins as the copigmentation effectiveness (Cp) was found to be between two to four times higher. The effects of these tannins were dose-dependent because a higher addition resulted in a greater impact on copigmentation. In general, an increase in pH and ethanol content resulted in a decrease of the effect of tannins on color. Independent of intrinsic wine conditions, hydrolysable tannins, more specifically gallotannin, remain the most effective in increasing red wine color. These results prove that supplementation with oenological tannins, especially hydrolysable tannins, could be an interesting tool for the improvement of the red wine color.

Aim: Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments located in grape skin as well as in vine leaves. The aim of this work was to identify, and determine the anthocyanin composition in Grenache noir (Vitis vinifera) leaves as well as to estimate the optimum conditions leading to the highest anthocyanin extraction yield. Methods and results: Five anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-DAD-MS. Among these anthocyanins, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside were the main anthocyanins, representing 43 and 38 %, respectively, while delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, petunidin-3-O-glucoside and malvidin-3-Oglucoside accounted for only 6, 5 and 8 %, respectively. To estimate the highest anthocyanin extraction yield, a multi-factorial design experiment was used to build a mathematical model. The extraction conditions tested were time, temperature and solvent composition (i. e., ethanol or SO2 level in acidified water). Conclusion: Only the five mono-glucoside anthocyanins usually detected in grapes have been detected, identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves. The optimum extraction conditions of these anthocyanins were obtained for acidified hydro-alcoholic solution (i. e., pH 2, 3 h, temperature ranging between 36.5 and 40 °C and an ethanol concentration ranging between 36.8 and 40 %) and for acidified water with SO2 (i. e., pH 2, between 5.8 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 38.6 and 40 °C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO2). Significance and impact of the study: Five mono-glucoside anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves. The optimum extraction conditions for of these anthocyanins were estimated in acidified hydroalcoholic solution and in acidified water with SO2. These extraction procedures will allow further investigation of the potential use of these anthocyanins as natural pigment for food as well as for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry.

Aim: To better understand the protein composition of grape skin cell walls, we have developed a method to analyse the strongly bound cell wall proteins. Methods and results: The protocol was developed with grape skins at full maturity. The critical steps of this protocol were : (i) the elimination of cellular aggregates, (ii) the elimination of soluble proteins, and (iii) the localization of the identified proteins within the cell wall. To verify whether these three conditions were met, the decrease in the quantity of cellular aggregates was followed by optical microscopy, the removal of soluble proteins was measured by chemical assay, and the presence of proteins located in cell walls was demonstrated by extensive bioinformatic analysis. The process made it possible to obtain a four-fold reduction in the amount of cellular aggregates, a reduction in the concentration of soluble proteins below the method detection limit, and a high proportion of proteins predicted to be secreted (79 %). Conclusion: The protocol described in this paper constitutes the first method to analyse proteins strongly bound to cell walls in grape skins. However, this method excludes the identification of labile proteins or proteins weakly bound to the cell wall. Significance and impact of the study: This protocol can be used for studying the role that strongly bound cell wall proteins play in development and defense processes in grape skins.

Grape and wine phenolics are structurally diverse, from simple molecules to oligomers and polymers usually designated as tannins. They have an important impact on the organoleptic properties of wines, that’s why their analysis and quantification are of primordial importance. The extraction of phenolics from grapes and from wines is the first step involved in the analysis. Then, several analytical methods have been developed for the determination of total content of phenolic, while chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses are continuously improved in order to achieve adequate separation of phenolic molecules, their subsequent identification and quantification. This review provides a summary of evolution of analysis of polyphenols from grapes, wines and extracts.

Aim: Anthocyanins are water soluble pigments mainly located in grape skin; however, these phenolic compounds are also located in vine leaves. The aim of this work was to identify, quantify and determine for the first time the anthocyanin composition in Grenache noir (Vitis vinifera) leaves. Methods and results: Five anthocyanins were identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS. Of these, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside were the main anthocyanins and represented 44 and 37%, respectively, while delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, petunidin-3-O-glucoside and malvidin-3-O-glucoside accounted for only 6, 5 and 8%, respectively. A multi-factorial design experiment was used to build a mathematical model to estimate the best extraction condition (highest anthocyanin extraction yield from leaf extract) for both SO2 and ethanol in the aqueous extraction solvent. For SO2, the optimal extraction parameters were an extraction time ranging between 5.77 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 20 and 23.7°C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO2 in the aqueous extraction solvent. Using the hydro-alcoholic extraction solvent, the optimal extraction parameters were an extraction time ranging between 3 and 4.37 h, a temperature set at 20°C and an ethanol concentration in the extraction solvent ranging between 32 and 40%. Conclusion: Only the five mono-glucoside anthocyanins usually detected in grapes have been detected, indentified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS. Using a multi-factorial design experiment the optimum conditions for the extraction of these anthocyanins were obtained in hydro-alcoholic solution (i.e., extraction time ranging between 3 and 4.37 h, a temperature set at 20°C and an ethanol concentration ranging between 32 and 40%) and in water with SO2 (i.e., extraction time ranging between 5.77 and 6 h, a temperature ranging between 20 and 23.7°C and a concentration of 500 ppm of SO2 in water). Significance and impact of the study: Five anthocyanins were detected, identified and quantified in Grenache noir leaves by HPLC-UV-MS and the main anthocyanin were with cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside. The

Astringency perception, as an essential parameter for high-quality red wine, is principally elicited by condensed tannins in diversified chemical structures. Condensed tannins, which are also known as proanthocyanidins (PAs), belong to the flavonoid class of polyphenols and are incorporated by multiple flavan-3-ols units according to their degree of polymerization (DP). However, the influence of DP size of PAs on astringency perception remains unclear for decades. This controversy was mainly attributed to the lack of efficient strategies to isolate the PAs in non-galloylated forms and with individual degree size from grape/wine. In the present study, the astringency intensity of purified and identified grape oligomeric tannins (DP ranged from 1 to 5) was firstly explored. A novel non-solid phase strategy was used to rapidly exclude the galloylated PAs from the non-galloylated PAs and fractionate the latter according to their DP size. Then, a series of PAs with individual DP size and galloylation were purified by an approach of preparative hydrophilic interaction chromatography. Furthermore, purified compounds were identified by both normal phase HPLC-FLD and reverse phase UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF. Finally, the contribution of the astringency perception of the individual purified tannins was examined with a salivary protein binding ability test. The results were observed by HPLC-FLD and quantified by changes in PA concentration remaining in the filtrate. In summary, a new approach without a solid stationary phase was developed to isolate PAs according to their DP size. And a positive relationship between the DP of PAs and salivary protein affinity was revealed.

Aims: Fourier Transform-Near Infrared (FT-NIR) spectrum and instrumental texture parameters were assessed as total phenol content and extractability predictors in intact grape seeds. Methods and results:The study was carried out on Cabernet-Sauvignon seeds from grapes harvested at six different advanced physiological stages throughout ripening and calibrated by flotation to reduce the in-field heterogeneity inside each sample. Among the instrumental mechanical properties tested (i. e., break force, break energy, Young’s modulus of elasticity and deformation index), the seed Young’s modulus of elasticity showed an increase during the first four weeks of ripening. This parameter also showed significant correlations with phenol content and extractability, although with low R coefficients. These correlations highlighted that the springier seed tissues greatly increase phenol extractability. Nevertheless, the best prediction of seed phenol content, performed directly on intact seeds, was found using FT-NIR spectroscopy in transmittance mode. The standard error of prediction for total phenol content was less than 8 %, while that for phenol extractability was worse. Conclusion: On the basis of these results, the two analytical methods could be applied in oenology for the rapid monitoring of seed phenolic maturity. Significance and impact of the study: The phenolic composition of grapes at the harvest time is a key factor determining their quality, and thus the quality of the finished wine. The chemical methods used for the determination of seed phenol content and extractability are generally slow because they require a preliminary extraction. Therefore, a rapid evaluation of these parameters could be highly interesting for the oenological sector.

The proanthocyandin composition of skins and seeds of Bordeaux Merlot (M) and Cabernet Sauvignon (CS) grapes was evaluated by HPLC-UV-fluorescence for four consecutive vintages (2006 to 2009). The results indicated a strong vintage effect on the tannin profile of each variety. However, and in spite of the vintage effect, some tannin characteristics such as mDP, %G and %P allow discrimination of both Bordeaux varieties. The same analyses were carried out for the 2009 vintage of five Mediterranean grape varieties (Syrah, Grenache, Mourvedre, Carignan and Counoise). The results demonstrated differences among these five varieties. Syrah appeared to exhibit the highest concentrations of flavanol monomers and dimmers, especially in skins. The comparison study between Bordeaux and Mediterranean grape varieties for the same vintage (2009) revealed that mDP and %G for seed extracts were parameters specific to each vineyard area.

Observational studies indicate that the intake of polyphenol-rich foods improves vascular health, thereby significantly reducing the risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyse the remained potential of grape by-products from important Rhône Valley red wine cultivars: Grenache, Syrah, Carignan, Mourvèdre and Alicante. For that, six different extracts from grape pomaces, selected by their antioxidant activity, were studied in vivo during six weeks with spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Extracts used in SHR1, SHR2 and SHR6 groups presented a « rebound effect » on systolic blood pressure, whereas the other extracts do not change it significantly. The bioavailability of Grenache (GRE1) (EA70) seed pomace extract (SHR1 group), Mouvendre (MOU) (EA70) skin pomace extract (SHR5 group) and Alicante (ALI) (EA70) skin pomace extract (SHR6 group) was studied by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array detector and Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometer (HPLC-PDA-ESI-MSn) in urine, plasma and tissues to search differences on the metabolism of the different extracts intake.

This review treats of the possible use interest of chitin, chitosan and derivatives in enology. Chitosan and chitin are polysaccharide polymers containing more than 5 000 glucosamine and acetylglucosamine units, respectively, and their molecular weights are over one million Daltons. Chitin is found in fungi, arthropods and marine invertebrates. Commercially, chitin is derived from the exoskeletons of crustaceans (shrimp, crab and other shellfish). Chitosan is obtained from chitin by a deacetylation process. An alternative can be the obtention of chitin and chitosane derivatives from fungi source and has been developed by Kitozyme Firm. Chitin, the polysaccharide polymer from which chitosan is derived, is a cellulose-like polymer consisting mainly of unbranched chains of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. Deacetylated chitin, or chitosan, is comprised of chains of D-glucosamine. When ingested, chitosan can be considered as a dietary fiber. The use of chitin, chitosan and derivatives should be favorable for differents aspects of wine production, in particular for : stabilization, clarification, deacidification, removal of heavy metals (lead, cadmium) or major metals (iron , copper), elimination of ochratoxin A, enzymes and pesticides.

Tannin accumulation and composition were determined in skins and seeds isolated from Vitis vinifera cv. Syrah grapes submitted to contrasting water regimes under semiarid climatic conditions. Three irrigation treatments were conducted, starting at berry set through harvest of two growing seasons, 2011 and 2012: irrigation at 100% of crop evapotranspiration ETc (FI), irrigation at 50% of ETc (DI) and non-irrigated (NI). Seed total tannins did not vary with maturity but those of skins underwent a progressive decline (especially in 2011), expressed both on a fresh weight and on a per berry basis. Skin total tannin concentration and content per berry were increased under NI and DI conditions, mainly in 2012. In contrast, seed total tannins (in 2012) and flavan-3-ol monomers and tannin oligomers (both years) were higher in the fully irrigated vines (FI). Skin polymer size increased during ripening, NI and DI skins showing higher mean degree of polymerization (mDP) compared to FI at harvest. NI was also associated with a lower percentage of galloylation (%G) in skin oligomeric fraction (in 2012) and a lower percentage of prodelphinidins in the skin polymeric fraction (both years) at harvest. The mDP and %G of seed extracts did not vary during ripening and were higher in NI but only in 2012. According to the results, management of vine water status was shown to influence tannin amount and composition of Syrah grapes grown under semiarid conditions.

The consumption of fruits and vegetables, as well as foods enriched in bioactive compounds and nutraceuticals, has increased due to consumers’ interest in the relevance of food composition for human health. Considerable recent interest has focused on bioactive phenolic compounds in grape, as they possess many biological activities, such as antioxidant, cardioprotective, anticancer, anti-inflammation, anti-ageing and antimicrobial properties. Observational studies indicate that the intake of polyphenol-rich foods improves vascular health, thereby significantly reducing the risk of hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Other researchers have described the benefits of a grape polyphenol-rich diet for other types of maladies such as diabetes mellitus. This is a comprehensive review on the consumption of polyphenolic grape compounds, concerning their potential benefits for human health in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.

Wine chemical analysis was carried out on 194 commercial blended red wines produced by two major wine-growing areas—the Aquitaine (France) and Rioja (Spain) regions—in order to compare the wines of both regions. Anthocyanins and derived pigments, tannins and derivatives were identified and quantified by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS (high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detector and mass spectrometry using the electrospray ionization interface). Mean degree of polymerization (mDP) was determined. The influence of the wine-growing region and the predominance of the properties of some grape varieties used are confirmed by the significant differences observed between both regions. Rioja and Bordeaux “generic” (Bordeaux and Bordeaux-Supérieur appellations) red wines showed the highest anthocyanic content and the highest mDP, as these wines are in a majority made from Merlot (Bordeaux “generic”) and Tempranillo (Rioja). On the contrary, Bordeaux “specific” regions (Blayais, Médoc, Graves, and Libournais) showed the red wines with the highest total phenolic content and tannin concentration, as the predominant grape variety used is Cabernet Sauvignon. A principal component analysis (PCA) and a hierarchical ascendant classification (HAC) suggesting patterns between the chemical parameters and the distribution of the red wines in three groups were proposed. The comparison of the two wine-growing areas also reveals some similarities between the various grape varieties used. A general effect of a progressive decrease in anthocyanins, anthocyanin-derived pigment and tannins is observed for older wines.