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The ageing population is posing increasingly similar challenges to the societies on both shores of the Mediterranean, where families remain the primary welfare agencies. The socio-demographic and ethnographic evidence surveyed in this article reveals that although old forms of relatedness such as co-residence in extended families continue to play a role, they are complemented by coping strategies in which a familistic ideology favors the “extension” of families through new forms of relatedness ranging from close residential proximity between children and parents to live-in homecare where domesticity may catalyze kinning processes between elders and their caregivers.

The realization that European family forms are failing to converge as predicted by modernization theory has led many scholars to suspect that the broad regional differences detected by historians persist in the present and are likely to influence future developments. This article outlines some relevant hypotheses prompted by historical studies about the role of family and kinship as sources of social security and analyses the results of comparative work on contemporary Europe, paying special attention to the relative weight of cultural and structural factors. Although differences still appear to predominate over commonalities, it is not inconceivable that in certain important respects European countries might paradoxically converge, owing to the generalized decline of the welfare state, towards forms of welfare provision that are closer to the ‘familialistic’ models of southern and eastern Europe than to the ‘modern’ models of Scandinavia and north-western Europe.

Questo articolo si propone di mettere in luce il contributo portato da Francesca Cappelletto al rinnovamento dell'antropologia alpina. Dopo avere delineato le varie fasi che hanno scandito la storia delle ricerche antropologiche sulle Alpi nel corso del XX secolo, l'articolo ripercorre la formazione e gli inizi della carriera di questa studiosa, concentrandosi poi sulle indagini da lei condotte tra il 1984 e il 1992 a Bagolino, una comunitŕ delle Alpi bresciane, e in particolare sul suo famoso carnevale. Si sottolinea come l'accurato studio di Francesca Cappelletto abbia saputo coniugare due diversi stili di ricerca sul campo, offrendo in tal modo un raro esempio di equilibrio metodologico che puň aiutare l'antropologia alpina, e l'antropologia piů in generale, a non cedere alle tentazioni della superficialitŕ e dell'improvvisazione e a raccogliere gli stimoli offerti da orientamenti teorici diversi e apparentemente in conflitto tra loro.

In the historical and anthropological literature, western Alps servants were widely assumed to be few in number, and the importance of the institution of service therefore negligible. This study combines historical-demographic and ethnographic methods to investigate whether this was true of a community in the Italian western Alps with a mixed population of peasants and transhumant shepherds. Surprisingly, a valuable 1951 census reveals that seemingly small numbers hide what was actually a normal phase in the life course of peasant sons whom shepherds recruited to work as servants. Distinct patterns of life-cycle and lifetime service seem to have coexisted in the same community. The evidence also confirms that in southern Europe, as some recent studies have pointed out, the institution of service often was not just the circulation of young men and women between households but an asymmetrical exchange between different socioeconomic groups. Otherwise rigid social and cultural boundaries were thereby crossed.

This article discusses the ‘Mediterranean model’ of household formation proposed by Laslett and others in the early 1980s and argues that the notion of a Mediterranean culture area has been used in significantly different ways by family historians and social anthropologists. Drawing its materials mainly from research conducted on Italy, it examines the changing relationships through time between nuptiality and household composition, the extent and structural characteristics of servanthood, and the functions of the family as a welfare agency. It is suggested that some concepts that recent generations of Mediterraneanist anthropologists have tended to question or utterly reject (including female honour) might still prove useful to shed light on a number of perplexing features of family life in Italy and the rest of southern Europe.

In this essay, we consider family history as a common field of substantive and theoretical interest shaped by contacts among several disciplines. These disciplines obviously include social history and population studies, but also – and rather prominently – social anthropology. One major component of the growth of family history has been the increasing amount of attention that historians pay to topics such as marriage, kinship, and the family, which have long been of central significance in the anthropological investigation of social structure. On the other hand, anthropologists have become aware of the serious limitations of synchronic, present-oriented field research, and most of them now probably agree that historical analysis is essential if they are to understand social and cultural processes. This realization has gradually changed many anthropologists from reluctant consumers of historical work into active and often quite enthusiastic producers.

The distinctive features of mountain pastoral families in the past, and their adaptations to environmental and economic constraints, have been the subject of many comparative studies. Less effort has been invested in exploring the role of the family in today’s pastoral economy and identifying structural and cultural continuities within the dramatic changes of the last decades. Our ethnographic fieldwork in several valleys of the Italian Western Alps revealed that, contrary to some expectations, families do retain a central economic and productive role and are instrumental in keeping pastoral farming alive. Some present-day herders belong to families that have continuously engaged in pastoralism for a long time; in other cases, younger generations have returned to pastoral work their parents abandoned for jobs in industry or the service sector; in still other cases, ‘‘new highlanders’’ have turned to pastoralism and become the heirs of local pastoral knowledge. Family structures have changed considerably, and their size and composition as well as their entrepreneurial choices depend on a delicate balance between market demands, domestic strategies to keep or attain the right household size and composition, and the availability of local resources. Access to communal resources to which some pastoral families are entitled by their local origin may prove crucial to the success of their enterprises.

Great European mountain ranges have acted as barriers to gene flow for resident populations since prehistory and have offered a place for the settlement of small, and sometimes culturally diverse, communities. Therefore, the human groups that have settled in these areas are worth exploring as an important potential source of diversity in the genetic structure of European populations. In this study, we present new high resolution data concerning Y chromosomal variation in three distinct Alpine ethno-linguistic groups, Italian, Ladin and German. Combining unpublished and literature data on Y chromosome and mitochondrial variation, we were able to detect different genetic patterns. In fact, within and among population diversity values observed vary across linguistic groups, with German and Italian speakers at the two extremes, and seem to reflect their different demographic histories. Using simulations we inferred that the joint effect of continued genetic isolation and reduced founding group size may explain the apportionment of genetic diversity observed in all groups. Extending the analysis to other continental populations, we observed that the genetic differentiation of Ladins and German speakers from Europeans is comparable or even greater to that observed for well known outliers like Sardinian and Basques. Finally, we found that in south Tyroleans, the social practice of Geschlossener Hof, a hereditary norm which might have favored male dispersal, coincides with a significant intra-group diversity for mtDNA but not for Y chromosome, a genetic pattern which is opposite to those expected among patrilocal populations. Together with previous evidence regarding the possible effects of “local ethnicity” on the genetic structure of German speakers that have settled in the eastern Italian Alps, this finding suggests that taking socio-cultural factors into account together with geographical variables and linguistic diversity may help unveil some yet to be understood aspects of the genetic structure of European populations.

En Italie, depuis le milieu du xx e siecle, la famille a connu dans un premier temps un processus de "nuclearisation", suivi de multiples metamorphoses liees au declin progressif du mariage. D'aucuns interpretent ces tendances comme la preuve d'une convergence vers des valeurs Nord-Europeennes ; pour d'autres chercheurs, des differences culturelles persistent, dont temoigne la force bien plus contraignante des liens de parente. L'article offre une perspective anthropologique sur ces questions et s'interroge sur le role que la "parente elective" pourrait jouer pour affronter les effets cumules de la crise economique, du vieillissement de la population et de la diminution des formes d'assistance sociale.

ABSTRACT: Northernmost Italy is a land of great ecological variability, providing a natural laboratory for examining the impact of environmental factors on demography and society. A sharp contrast between mountains and plains was reflected in sharp differences in land tenure and social structure. Differences in access to marriage and in household composition between upland and lowland communities are examined and the impact on family life of economic changes occurring over the period 1750–1930 are explored. Environmental factors are found to play a major role in determining the kind of demographic and family patterns that prevailed.

The aim of the Historical Perspectives series is to use a greater understanding of the history of childhood to shed light on the quest for improved policies and programmes for dealing with contemporary child-related social issues. In investigating the social and economic factors and policy measures that have proved instrumental in all but ending child labour in industrialized countries, these papers aim to direct attention to measures that might be adopted to accelerate substantially the movement towards elimination at least of the most harmful and exploitative forms of child labour in today’s developing world.

Un examen attentif du fonctionnement des hôpitaux pour enfants trouvés offre une des meilleurs méthodes d'évaluation de la qualité des soins donnés aux enfants dans le passé et de l'impact des mesures prises, en matière médicale, administrative ou juridique, dans l'intention d'améliorer les chances de survie des nourrissons et des jeunes enfants. Dans cet article est presentee l'évolution de la mortalité infantile à Florence, dans le cadre de l'hôpital des enfants trouves, depuis le milieu du XIXe siècle jusqu'a la première guerre mondiale, avec l'ambition de jeter quelque lumière sur la question controversée de l'impact des nouvelles législations sur le niveau de la mortalité infantile. II apparaît que, contrairement à ce que l'on avait cru, les restrictions imposées en matière d'abandon des enfants en 1875, en particulier la suppression du tour (cet appareil placé autrefois à la porte d'entrée des institutions pour enfants trouvés qui permettait l'abandon anonyme), n'avaient eu que très peu d'effets sur les niveaux et les tendances de la mortalité infantile à l'époque. Plus tard, cependant, certaines mesures juridiques auront des effets plus marquants et permettront de déclencher un processus d'amélioration de la survie des petits enfants et un déclin irréversible de la mortalité infantile.

Viazzo (Pier Paolo). — Famiglia, parentela e coresi-denza in un villaggio walser. Una nota di etnografia su Alagna (Valsesia). Lo studio dell'organizzazione familiare nelle Alpi si è awalso in misura consistente di fonti storico-demogra-fiche, le quali, se da un lato hanno permesso affrontare la questione su un terreno empirico, dall'altro hanno perô portato a concentrarsi in modo prevalente sull'aggregato domestico coresidente. Utilizzando una serie di dati raccolti ad Alagna, l'articolo esplora l'importanza dei rapporti di parentela al di qua e al di là délia coresidenza. Dopo aver delineato le principali caratteristiche délia composizione dei gruppi domestici alagnesi facendo riferimento aile fonti demografiche, si ripercorre la storia di una famiglia e di una casa nel corso di due secoli, intrecciando le informazioni sto-riche con quelle di tipo etnografico. Dall'analisi emerge una certa discordanza tra la rigi-dità delle strutture domestiche registrate dalle fonti ufficiali e una realtà molto più fluida, che contempla soluzioni transitorie, collegate alla mobilità di questa popolazione, che per secoli ha alimentato consistenti Aussi migratori. D'altro canto, perô, i limiti delle fonti che danno un'immagine troppo fissa délia coresidenza non devono portare a sminuire l'importanza délia coresidenza stessa. Le Monde Alpin et rhodanien, 3e trimestre 1994. Familles. Destins. Destinations, pp. 27 à 46., Viazzo (Pier Paolo). — Famille, parenté et co-résidence dans un village walser. Une note d'ethnographie sur Alagna (Valsesia). L 'étude de l'organisation de la famille dans les Alpes a tiré grand profit de l'utilisation de sources historico-démographiques, lesquelles ont permis non seulement d'aborder la question d'une manière empirique, mais ont aussi conduit à se concentrer surtout sur le groupe domestique co-résident. A partir de données recueillies à Alagna, l'article examine le poids des rapports de parenté en deçà et au-delà de la co-résidence. Après avoir décrit les principales caractéristiques de la composition des ménages à Alagna en utilisant les sources démographiques, est reconstruite l'histoire d'une famille et d'une maison sur deux siècles, en croisant les informations historiques avec des données de type ethnographique. De cette analyse, il ressort une discordance entre la rigidité des structures domestiques enregistrées dans les sources officielles et une réalité plus fluide qui admet des solutions transitoires. Ces dernières sont liées à la mobilité typique de cette population qui, pendant plusieurs siècles, a alimenté un flux migratoire considérable. D'un autre côté, cependant, les limites des sources donnant une image figée de la co-résidence ne doivent pas conduire à négliger l'importance de la co-résidence elle-même. Le Monde Alpin et rhodanien, 3e trimestre 1994. Familles. Destins. Destinations, pp. 27 à 46., Viazzo Pier Paolo. Famille, parenté et co-résidence dans un village walser. Une note d'ethnographie sur Alagna (Valsesia). In: Le Monde alpin et rhodanien. Revue régionale d'ethnologie, n°3/1994. Familles. Destins. Destinations. Organisation domestique et parenté dans les Alpes italiennes, sous la direction de Dionigi Albera . pp. 27-46.

The evidence presented in this article shows that from the mid-18th century up to the early 20th century babies and young children tended to have a more favourable mortality experience in the upland regions of the Alpine crescent than in the adjacent hilly and flat areas. Although several explanations have been advanced, most scholars are inclined to believe that the lower levels of infant mortality displayed by the Alpine area were primarily accounted for by climatic and other environmental factors, which made infants less vulnerable to bronchial and pulmonary disease and lessened the risk of gastro-intestinal disorders. The available evidence also shows, however, that broad differences can be detected across major regional subdivisions, infant mortality rates being markedly higher in the Austrian Alps than in the rest of the Alpine area. Such differences appear to be mainly related to regional variations in infant feeding habits. Some specific features of Alpine seasonal patterns of infant mortality are also discussed. This article ends up with a tentative outline of long-term trends in Alpine infant mortality from the poorly recorded period before 1750 up to the 1950s., II apparaît que du milieu du XVIIIe siècle au début du XIXe siècle, la mortalité infantile et post-infantile était moindre dans la partie montagneuse des Alpes, qu'elle ne l'était dans les régions de collines et de plaines adjacentes. Bien que plusieurs explications aient été avancées, la plupart des chercheurs sont enclins à penser que les taux moins élevés de mortalité infantile sur les hauteurs étaient dus au climat et aux autres facteurs liés à l'environnement qui rendaient les enfants plus résistants aux maladies pulmonaires et diminuaient le risque d'infections gastro-intestinales. Toutefois il y a de grandes différences régionales ; ainsi le taux de mortalité infantile était-il plus élevé dans les Alpes autrichiennes qu'ailleurs. Cela semble dû principalement à la façon de nourrir les nourrissons. Les caractéristiques des taux de mortalité saisonniers dans les Alpes sont aussi présentées et discutées. L'auteur donne enfin un aperçu de l'évolution de la mortalité infantile dans les Alpes du milieu du XVIIIe siècle jusqu'au milieu du XXe siècle, Viazzo Pier Paolo. Les modèles alpins de mortalité infantile. In: Annales de démographie historique, 1994. pp. 97-117.

In 1980 Alan Macfarlane remarked that it was ‘a pleasing irony that one of the “hardest” of the social sciences, concerned with the analysis of numbers of births, marriages and deaths, should be nudging us towards that realization of the importance of “culture” which, so some have argued, is the special contribution of anthropology’. Recent research in historical demography had in fact demonstrated the existence in pre-industrial Europe of broad regional differences in demographic systems and family structures, and ‘looking from a very long distance’ one could not help being struck by the association between the cultural and ethnic subdivisions of traditional Europe and the demographic map which was gradually emerging. It seemed more than a pure coincidence, to Macfarlane, that the boundary between western and eastern European marriage patterns detected by Hajnal roughly followed the Slav/non-Slav division, and that in Western Europe a demographic frontier separated the southern regions where Roman culture and law were dominant from the Germanic regions to the north. It is certainly reassuring for anthropology that the findings of historical demographers appear to vindicate the usefulness of the ‘culture area’ approach which Conrad Arensberg had recommended in the early 1960s for the anthropological study of the peoples of the Old World. However, more refined information which has become available in the last few years shows that significant demographic differences existed not only between the major cultural regions of Europe but also within them.

Anthropological models of the Alpine household Over the last few decades, the emergence of common areas of research on the border between history and anthropology has led many anthropologists to acquire greater familiarity with the methods and techniques of historical demography. For their part, historical demographers are now paying more attention to the work of anthropologists, and the growing emphasis they are placing on nuptiality is likely to further increase their interest in a number of topics which have long been of primary significance in the anthropological investigation of social structure. As E. A. Wrigley has recently observed, if it is recognized that marriage was central to European population history, then ‘questions such as the transmission of property between successive generations, authority structures within the family, patterns of co-residence and support, the institution of service, inheritance customs, and cognate matters, can scarcely fail to attract study’. Indeed, the results of our historical survey indicate that in order to shed more light on several important yet elusive aspects of Alpine demography it is necessary to examine in more detail what Jack Goody has called ‘the domestic domain’, and in particular the nexus linking inheritance systems to nuptiality and family formation. Both historians and anthropologists have widely assumed that impartible inheritance will produce low levels of nuptiality and a predominance of stemfamily households, whereas partibility should result in early marriage, moderate rates of permanent celibacy, and a high proportion of nuclear families.