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Predation risk is known to affect the spatial use of prey species, imposing a trade-off between feeding requirements and predation avoidance. As a result, prey species can leave high-quality forage areas to use sub-optimal, but safer, habitat patches, defined as “refuge areas.” In this study, we describe changes in the spatial use of an introduced ungulate species, the Mediterranean mouflon Ovis aries musimon, following the recolonization (in 1996) of wolves Canis lupus into the Albergian Hunting Estate (Italian Western Alps). Since 1988, we monitored the mouflon population by spring counts from vantage points. We georeferenced all observations and recorded the size and structure of the spotted groups. Finally, we identified available refuges by selecting patches characterized by (i) the presence of rocks and (ii) high values of steepness and ruggedness. We found that mouflons significantly reduced the average distance from refuge areas over the years, with the yearly average distance from refuges being 56% lower after wolves recolonized the area (i.e., 93.8 ± 32.1 vs. 213.1 ± 40.9 m). The analysis of orographic parameters showed that mouflons used patches with higher values in elevation, slope, ruggedness, and a significant difference in all three parameters when comparing years pre and post wolf return. Both sexes were significantly affected, but ewes were particularly sensitive and selected patches closer to refuge areas (75.8 ± 30.3 m) than males (131.0 ± 53.6 m). Our results suggest that the presence of new predators can alter the distribution of an introduced species such as the Mediterranean mouflon, triggering the resurgence of anti-predation behavior.

Background Wild carnivores such as the grey wolf (Canis lupus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and golden jackal (Canis aureus) are recognized hosts of Dirofilaria immitis. However, few studies have focused on their actual role in the epidemiology of heartworm infection. This study describes the prevalence and distribution of D. immitis in wolves in a heartworm-endemic area in northern Italy where wolves have recently returned after long-time eradication, and investigates the fertility status of the collected adult nematodes. Methods In the frame of a long-term wolf monitoring programme in northwestern Italy, 210 wolf carcasses from four provinces were inspected for the presence of filarioid nematodes in the right heart and pulmonary arteries. Female heartworms were measured, and their uterine content analyzed according to a previously described “embryogram” technique. Results Three wolves, all originating from a single province (Alessandria), were positive for D. immitis (1.42%, 95% CI: 0.48–4.11%, in the whole study area; 13.6%, 95% CI: 4.7–33.3%, limited to the single province from which infected wolves originated). Mean intensity was 5 worms (range: 3–7) and the female worms measured 21–28 cm in length. Six out of 9 female worms harbored uterine microfilariae: 5 were classified as gravid; 1 showed a “discontinuous gradient”; and 3 were non-gravid. Conclusions The present data show that heartworm infection is already prevalent in wolves that have recolonized the known heartworm-endemic area. Based on “embryogram” results, wolves were shown suitable heartworm hosts. Interestingly, investigated wolves appeared similarly exposed to heartworm infection as sympatric unprotected dogs (owned dogs that have never received any heartworm prevention treatment) sampled at the beginning of the wolf return process.

Obeliscoides cuniculi is a common parasite in American lagomorphs, while it has never been reported in the European rabbit. The exotic parasite has been introduced in Italy by the eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), an invasive alien lagomorph introduced to Europe for hunting purpose. Considering that S. floridanus shares the same areas with the European rabbit, the aim of this work is to document the first report of this parasite in an autochtonous lagomorph. O.cuniculi, isolated from one adult European rabbit found dead, was identified considering the morphological features and reproductive organs of the adult stage (length and thickness of the body, spicules structure and size). The present study represents the first record of the gastric nematode O. cuniculi (Trichostrongilidae) in a population of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Italy. Since Graphidium strigosum is the most common parasite infecting the European rabbit stomach, this study considers and discusses different scenarios about helminth co-infection effect. Further studies should be carried out to understand the long-term effect of this introduction on wild rabbit population.

According to the host manipulation hypothesis, parasites modify the hosts’ phenotype to maximise their transmission success. Avian malaria parasites and related haemosporidians are vectorborne parasites infecting birds worldwide. Recent studies have reported a greater attraction of mosquitoes to infected birds, supporting the host manipulation hypothesis. Changes in the composition of the uropygial gland secretion of birds associated with infections have been proposed as the potential mechanisms explaining this pattern. Here we critically review the published information on the host manipulation hypothesis in the context of avian malaria infections. We focus this article on the suggested role of the secretions of the uropygial gland and bird odours as mosquito attractants. The role of uropygial gland secretions as attractants of mosquitoes was poorly supported by available literature. In contrast, changes in the odour profile of infected birds or a reduction in the anti-mosquito behaviour of infected individuals may explain the parasite-mediated effects on mosquito attraction and biting rates. Finally, we propose future research approaches to identify the role of parasite infections on the interaction between birds and insect vectors. Según la hipótesis de manipulación del hospedador, los parásitos modifican el fenotipo del hospedador para maximizar su éxito de transmisión. Los parásitos de la malaria aviar y los hemosporidios relacionados son parásitos transmitidos por vectores que infectan a las aves de todo el mundo. Estudios recientes han encontrado apoyo para una mayor atracción de mosquitos hacia las aves infectadas, lo que respalda la hipótesis de la manipulación del hospedador. Cambios en la composición de la secreción de la glándula uropigial de las aves asociados a las infecciones se han propuesto como un posible mecanismo para explicar este patrón. Aquí, revisamos críticamente la información publicada sobre la hipótesis de la manipulación del hospedador en el contexto de las infecciones por malaria aviar. Centramos este artículo en el papel sugerido de las secreciones de la glándula uropigial y los olores de las aves como atrayentes de mosquitos. El papel de las secreciones de la glándula uropigial como atrayentes de mosquitos tuvo poco apoyo en la literatura. Por el contrario, los cambios en el perfil de olor de las aves infectadas o una reducción del comportamiento antimosquitos de los individuos infectados pueden explicar los efectos mediados por parásitos en la atracción de mosquitos y las tasas de picadura. Finalmente, proponemos perspectivas de investigación futuras para identificar el papel de las infecciones parasitarias en la interacción entre las aves y los insectos vectores. Spanish Government CGL2015-65055-P PGC 2018-095704-B-I00 European Commission CGL2015-65055-P PGC 2018-095704-B-I00 2017 Leonardo Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, of the BBVA Foundation Severo-Ochoa grant from the Spanish ministry of Economy and Competitiveness SVP-2014-068571

Introduction of alien species is a well-known threat to biodiversity. Where newly introduced, alien species may pose a risk for the local ecological community by competing for resources or by introducing pathogens. Sylvilagus floridanus is an American lagomorph introduced into Europe in the second half of 20th century, for hunting. This study evaluated the structure and epidemiological characteristics of the gastrointestinal parasite community in an introduced population of S. floridanus in the Province of Alessandria (Piedmont Region&mdash, Italy). Three alien parasites were reported out of 271 animals: Obeliscoides cuniculi in the stomach, Trichostrongylus calcaratus in the small intestine, and Passarulus nonnanulatus in the large intestine. All these nematodes are commonly reported in S. floridanus in its natural range, but they represent alien species in Europe. The report of these alien parasites is an example of the unexpected consequences caused by the introduction of non-native vertebrates. The documented introduction of new pathogens may alter the parasite community of the native lagomorphs, with possible long-term effects on local ecological dynamics.

This study provides insights about the diversity, prevalence and distribution of alpine wild galliformes gastrointestinal parasite community, trying to fill a gap in the scientific information currently available in scientific literature. The analysis included three host species: 77 rock partridge (Alectoris graeca saxatilis), 83 black grouse (Tetrao tetrix tetrix) and 26 rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helveticus) shot during the hunting seasons 2008–2015. Parasites isolated wereAscaridia compar, Capillaria caudinflataand cestodes. The rock ptarmigan was free from gastrointestinal parasites, whereas the most prevalent helminth (37%) wasA. comparin both black grouse and rock partridge.C. caudinflataoccurrence was significantly higher in black grouse (prevalence = 10%, mean abundance = 0.6 parasites/sampled animal) than in rock partridge (prevalence = 1.20%, mean abundance = 0.01 parasites/sampled animal). Significant differences were detected among hunting districts.A. comparwas found with a significant higher degree of infestation in the hunting districts in the northern part of the study area whereas cestodes abundance was higher in Lanzo Valley. Quantitative analysis of risk factors was carried out using a generalized linear model (GLM) only on the most common parasite (A. compar). Latitude was the only factors associated with infestation risk (OR = 52.4). This study provides information on the composition and variability of the parasite community in the alpine Galliformes species.

13 páginas, 4 figuras, 2 tablas., Sarcoptic mange is a cosmopolitan disease affecting the skin of domestic and wild mammalian species and humans as well. In Eurasia, sarcoptidosis (also known as sarcoptic mange or scabies) affects mountain ungulates (Caprinae) among other wild hosts, and epizootic outbreaks induce variable mortality rates. This fact, coupled with the important ecological and socio-economic values of such mammalian hosts, resulted in many research projects being focused on addressing ecological, physiological, behavioural, genetic, and pathological effects of the disease. Nevertheless, information about management of sarcoptic mange in free-ranging populations is scarce and scattered, with contradictory results and a lack of consensus on basic aspects of the disease. In this review, we summarise knowledge on the effects of sarcoptic mange in wild Caprinae, at individual, pathological and population epidemiological levels, as well as on the current tools and management strategies for its detection, diagnosis, prevention, and control. Disease spread in na�ve populations is ca. 6�km�year, and the mortality rate can be >95%. Tools for monitoring the disease include visual diagnosis, photographic traps, trained dogs, thermography, immunodiagnostics, molecular tools, radiocollars, and epidemiological modelling. Options for management include eradication, control, and prevention of the disease; biosecurity and prevention of spread to humans can be achieved by careful hygiene methods. Sarcoptic mange is a natural, biological factor controlling host population numbers and dynamics in Caprinae, so goals and strategies for its management in wild populations must be set accordingly. Specific management programmes for preventing and controlling sarcoptic mange in wild Caprinae populations must be based on reliable epidemiological data. More research is needed to provide evidence-based policies. The efficacy and safety of various management approaches remain to be tested experimentally., The Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government funded several projects of the authors: CGL2012-40043-C02-01; CGL2012-40043-C02-02; and CGL2016-80543-P. The authors’ research activities were partially funded by the PAIDI, Junta de Andalucía (RNM-118 group).

During a health survey in the Province of Alessandria (NW Italy) 267 free ranging red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa; 137 males and 130 females) were captured in 2009 (n = 101), 2010 (n = 130) and 2011 (n = 36). After biometric data and blood samples collection, animals were released on site. Blood samples were used for the preparation of blood smears. A total of 1.5% of smears presented parasites with a light blue finely granular cytoplasm in red blood cells. The parasites were identified, on the basis of their morphology (no molecular identification was possible), as being Haemoproteus sp. juvenile forms. The infestation prevalence was 0.8% in 2010 and 8.3% in 2011. No parasite was observed in 2009. The size of the infested erythrocytes was not altered (P > 0.05) and the nuclear displacement ratio was 0.8 ± 0.2. All the birds were apparently in good health status. To our knowledge this is the first description of Haemoproteus sp. in red-legged partridge, and more in general in birds belonging to Galliformes Order in Italy.

The Eurasian Scops Owl Otus scops is a migratory owl whose population is declining throughout a large part of its breeding range, due to intensification of farming practices and land-use changes. F...

In female mammals, reproduction requires high energy expenditure because of gestation and lactation, possibly leading to a fitness cost. Several studies, however, failed to find the expected negative correlation between current and future reproductive success, likely because of individual heterogeneity in reproductive potential. We compared reproductive performance and costs of reproduction for 40 female Alpine ibex in one established population with 29 females translocated from the same population to a new colony. We investigate factors affecting pregnancy, fecundity and overwinter survival of juveniles, after accounting for individual heterogeneity. In both populations, prime-aged females experienced a strong reproductive cost. Senescent females, however, showed no evidence of reproductive costs. The colonizing population showed lower reproductive cost and better age-specific reproductive performance than the established population. We found a general pattern of low age-specific fecundity and reproductive success that was affected by environmental constraints. Age-specific reproductive success was unrelated to longevity. Although about 84 % of adult females appeared to conceive, independently of environmental constraints, energy was allocated to reproduction in a highly conservative manner, leading to low age-specific fecundity (only 36 and 21 % of prime-aged and senescent females were seen with a kid) but high kid survival (100 % to weaning and 92 % to 1 year). Our results suggest that females embarked on lactation only if they had a very high probability of raising their offspring. Our study highlights how reproductive performance and costs in this species vary with age and environment, and are the result of a highly conservative reproductive tactic.

Faecal pellet count is an indirect census method used to estimate the density of an animal population. Factors that affect the accuracy and precision of this method are the defecation rate, the decay time and the detectability of the droppings. In this study, we analysed the influence of some variables on the detectability of droppings: (i) environmental variables, EV (vegetation type, grass height, meteorological conditions); (ii) subjective variables, SV (operator, subjective visibility); (iii) faeces–species related variables, SRV (Capreolus capreolus Linnaeus, 1758; Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 and Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778). The average values of dropping detectability, expressed as percentage of observations from the minimum detectability (0) to the maximum (1), were: 0.99 (SD = 0.07) for red deer faeces; 0.93 (SD = 0.16) for roe deer faeces; 0.89 (SD = 0.21) for European brown hare faeces. The red deer detectability value was statistically higher than the roe deer and European brown har...

Over the last few decades, in Italy as in the rest of EU, both the number of wild ungulates and the volume of traffic have increased significantly. Consequently, ungulate-vehicle collisions have increased with significant costs in human death and injury, animal welfare and material damage. In this study we provide information about temporal patterns of collisions in a subalpine Italian region. We analyzed 1110 reports of accidents that occurred in Cuneo district from January 2008 to December 2011. Most of them were caused by roe deer and wild boar, while red deer, fallow deer and chamois were occasionally involved. Monthly distribution of accidents showed two peaks, with a higher risk of collision during spring mainly related to roe deer and a secondary peak in autumn caused by wild boar. No evident daily variations were noticed. In the case of roe deer, we reported the existence of a primary hourly peak at dusk and another secondary peak at dawn. Wild boar were most frequently involved in collisi...

Population estimations are necessary for effective conservation management. In Italy, brown hare populations are commonly censused by spotlighting, but this method does not seem to suit an alpine environment due to its vegetational and orographical complexity. The aim of this study is to evaluate the critical aspects related to spotlight census method in an alpine environment. Spotlight was carried out along two transects of a typical alpine environment. Observed animals were used to define density (number of animal seen/100 ha) and method precision (coefficient of variation (CV) applied to monthly repeated observations). Animal detectability was evaluated using half-normal function with cosine expansion (Distance 5.0®). Animal observability was evaluated by analyzing density estimates related to habitat conformation (unseen areas or full visibility). The exact surface surveyed by spotlighting was evaluated, defining the observation spotlight beam range (OTA) and the land useful sighting (LUS). In the end, LUS was classified in three patches according to hare presence: no hares, occasional hare presence, and constant hare presence. To evaluate habitat influence onto CV, we used a bootstrap simulation. The results show that spotlighting alone is not the most suitable method to apply in the alpine environment because habitat structure highly influences census results. Recommendations to improve spotlight surveys for monitoring European brown hare populations are given.

The transmission of pestiviruses between domestic and wild ruminants has not been documented in communal alpine pastures shared between wildlife and livestock. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of domestic and wild ungulates species from Varaita Valley (SW Italian Alps) in the epidemiology of Pestivirus infections. Sera from free-ranging alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) were collected from 1994 to 2009 and 2001 to 2009, respectively. Also, sera from cattle and sheep sampled in 2009 were studied. Sera were tested for the presence of antibodies against pestivirus with an ELISA assay. Sera from positive animals were subsequently tested with a comparative virus neutralisation test using the BVDV-NADL and BDV-137/4 strains. Sera were tested for the presence of pestiviral antigen and the presence of viral RNA with a commercial ELISA assay and RT-PCR. Antibodies against Pestivirus were detected in 132 out of 312 (42%) chamois, in 30 out of 175 (17%) cattle and 6 out of 24 (25%) sheep. No antibodies were found in roe deer. No Pestivirus antigen or RNA was detected in any of the samples. Results indicate circulation of pestiviruses among the studied chamois, cattle and sheep populations. However the role of wild ungulates in the dynamics of Pestivirus infection is still unknown and monitoring the presence of these viruses in wild ungulates would be of importance, especially in the chamois population, where pestiviruses seem to circulate extensively.

The eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus is a native American lagomorph. Within the genus Sylvilagus, the eastern cottontail is the species with the widest distribution. From 1950s, the species was introduced to several European countries. A rapid territorial expansion of the introduced eastern cottontails has been observed in many areas of Italy. The eastern cottontail has been demonstrated to play a main role as carrier of exotic parasites. To date, three nematode species, exotic in Italian ecosystems, have been reported from introduced S. floridanus. However, its parasite fauna biodiversity is richer in native populations of the American continent. The aim of this work was to further investigate the gastrointestinal parasites of S. floridanus, to evaluate the potential presence of other exotic species. During 2010, 101 hosts were examined, and three nematodes were collected from their digestive tract. Two parasite species (Obeliscoides cuniculi, Trichostrongylus calcaratus) were already reported in Italy; the isolation of Trichostrongylus affinis is instead the first report of this nematode in Italy and in Europe as a whole. This study wants to highlight the great risks related to the introduction of allochthonous species. The impact of the invasion by alien animal species may be particularly severe for public and animal health, due to the potential introduction of new pathogens. The good number of exotic parasites found in introduced eastern cottontails, together with the few sanitary surveys carried out, suggests that an epidemiological survey, with specimens from multiple localities on a wider geographic range, could lead to interesting findings on parasites of native and alien lagomorphs in Europe.

Analysis of the genetic diversity of the Alpine chamois in Italy was conducted using a pool of 26 microsatellite loci. A total of 209 animals were analyzed, representing six geographical populations from different location of the Southern slope of the Alps. Clear genetic differences have emerged between the sampled chamois groups. Some were consistent with an isolation-by-distance model. However, in parallel, other mechanisms intervened in areas that, in addition to being peripheral to the main alpine ridge, had suffered from recent bottlenecks. In such areas, genetic drift and a low rate of gene flow are likely explanations for the current genetic structure.

We used an enclosure trap with a lifting net to capture Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). The trap was activated by remote radio-controlled electromagnets powered by photovoltaic modules. The up-net trap had considerable advantages over mechanical methods described in the literature for the capture of chamois. During 36 capture sessions, we captured 50 chamois, or 1.39 animals per session. Capture success was 96.2% of the average of 1.4 animals that entered the trap during a capture session. Mortality was 2%, and another 2% of the captured chamois was injured. There were no known postrelease capture-induced pathologies, and the capture effort was 1.7 man-days per chamois. The trap allowed to select specific target animals and to capture sex–age classes (particularly kids and their mothers) that are normally difficult or impossible to capture. It could be set off from a distance; it only required about 4 h to assemble and could be operated by as few as two people.

The authors describe a case of Sarcoptes scabiei transmission from a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) kid to three roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns kept in captive cohabitation in a wildlife rehabilitation centre for approximately 4 months. Symptoms in the two male fawns started developing 1 week after skin lesions were noticed in the kid, whereas a delayed (75 days later) appearance of scabies signs was observed in the female fawn. A severe generalised form of scabies rapidly developed in a male fawn, but lesions in the other two healed after triple inoculation of ivermectin at 15 days intervals. These roe deer were monitored for specific anti-S. scabiei antibodies with an immunoblotting technique. The strongest antibody response was exhibited during the clinical phase of the infection and then rapidly declined post-treatment. Interestingly, the female fawn developed immunoglobulin G to S. scabiei proteins more than 2 months before the onset of clinical scabies. Since all captive roe deer appeared sensitive to infection with S. scabiei var. rupicaprae, the authors hypothesise that the sporadic frequency of spontaneous scabies in this Cervid host may be attributed to avoidance of direct contacts with moribund or recently dead scabietic chamois, and/or to a self-limiting (and therefore difficult to detect) course of the disease after infrequent infectious contacts and/or exposure to lower infectious doses than in the described episode.

A 3-year-old male chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) shot during a harvest plan in Piedmont (Italy) presented periocular alopecic and thickened crusty lesions, some of which slightly red in colour. Hair still present was broken and easily removed. Direct microscopic examination of the pathological material collected by skin scraping led to the diagnosis of dermatophytosis, as the hair shafts appeared invaded by unstained spherical spores (arthroconidia). Fungal growth was obtained by culturing hair and crusts on thiamine/inositol enriched Sabouraud’s medium at 37°C. The macro- and microscopic characteristics of the organism were typical of the dermatophyte Trichophyton verrucosum. Wild ruminants are rarely affected by dermatophytosis, whereas in cattle, sheep and goats, infection because of this dermatophyte is quite common. This seems to be the first case of infection by T. verrucosum in chamois.

Distance sampling is being extensively used to estimate the abundance of animal populations. Nevertheless, the great variety of ways in which data can be analyzed may limit comparisons due to the lack of standardization of such protocols. In this study, the influence of analytical procedures for distance sampling data on density estimates and their precision was assessed. We have used data from 21 surveys of mountain ungulates in the Iberian Peninsula, France and the Italian Alps. Data from such surveys were analyzed with the program Distance 6.0. Our analyses show that estimated density can be higher for higher levels of data truncation. We also confirm that the estimates tend to be more precise when data are analyzed without binning and without truncating. We found no evidence of size biased sampling as group size and distances were uncorrelated in most of our surveys. Despite distance sampling being a fairly robust methodology, it can be sensitive to some data analysis strategies.

Parasites, as organisms with a particular way of life, form an important part of biodiversity, not only regarding the number of known species, but also because of their relevant role within ecological processes. These two facts should justify conservation of parasites, at least within natural and protected areas. Little is known about such complex communities of parasites but they are often considered as pests, even out of the fields of public (human) health and animal production, that is, just in the natural environment or under natural conditions. It is increasingly assumed that wildlife diseases, including those produced by parasites, are one of the main bases for managing animal populations. Parasitic diseases may also be managed and, at this point, we can find multiple technical problems which, in certain occasions, lead into philosophical questions or true dilemmas. These considerations are illustrated by revising parasites of the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica), an Iberian mountain ungulate the parasitofauna of which is relatively well known. As a big game species, its trophies become more and more appreciated. Therefore, human dimensions involved in management of its populations are considerably increased. Finally, reasons and opportunities for managing parasitic diseases affecting ibex are revised and discussed, under a global goal or perspective of conserving parasites within natural areas, particularly those that are protected.

Birds belonging to 59 species (n = 1,206) were live captured in Piemonte, northwestern Italy, in 2001. Ixodes ricinus (L.) larvae were collected from 59 birds belonging to nine species, and nymphs were recovered on 79 birds belonging to 10 species. Eurasian blackbirds, Turdus merula L., had significantly higher levels of infestation by ticks than other passerine species. Larval I. ricinus of blackbirds peaked in summer, when prevalence was 39% (95% confidence interval 24.2–55.5) and mean number of ticks per host was 3.3 (1.6–7.2), whereas nymphs peaked in spring, when prevalence was 72.2% (54.8–85.8) and mean number of ticks per host was 6.9 (4.4–10.7). Immature I. ricinus were coincidentally aggregated on blackbirds, with 15 blackbirds feeding 67.4% of nymphs and 40.3% of larvae, and coinfestation by both stages was relatively high in summer: Kappa = 0.64 (0.40–0.88). Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato was identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 58.3% (35.9–78.5) of larvae with engorgement...

Birds belonging to 59 species (n = 1,206) were live captured in Piemonte, northwestern Italy, in 2001. Ixodes ricinus (L.) larvae were collected from 59 birds belonging to nine species, and nymphs were recovered on 79 birds belonging to 10 species. Eurasian blackbirds, Turdus merula L., had significantly higher levels of infestation by ticks than other passerine species. Larval I. ricinus of blackbirds peaked in summer, when prevalence was 39% (95% confidence interval 24.2-55.5) and mean number of ticks per host was 3.3 (1.6-7.2), whereas nymphs peaked in spring, when prevalence was 72.2% (54.8-85.8) and mean number of ticks per host was 6.9 (4.4-10.7). Immature I. ricinus were coincidentally aggregated on blackbirds, with 15 blackbirds feeding 67.4% of nymphs and 40.3% of larvae, and coinfestation by both stages was relatively high in summer: Kappa = 0.64 (0.40-0.88). Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato was identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in 58.3% (35.9-78.5) of larvae with engorgement ratioor = 3 that were collected from blackbirds. Larvae that were collected from other passerine species gave negative PCR results. Sixteen of 21 PCR-positive samples belonged to B. garinii (76.2%), and five (23.8%) were Borrelia valaisiana. Results of this study suggest that blackbirds play an important role as hosts for immature I. ricinus and as reservoir of Borrelia garinii in northwestern Italy.

Lepus timidus varronis, is the alpine sub-species of Lepus timidus and an endemic glacial relict of the Alps. Despite the great conservational and biological relevance of the species, the number of studies concerning it's biology and ecology are limited. An essential parameter for species management is to correctly estimate population density. To date there are no standardized nor validated survey techniques for surveying L. t. varronis. The faecal pellet count is considered a suitable census method but its use is limited due to the absence of data concerning the daily mean defecation rate of the species. The aim of this work is therefore to estimate the daily mean defecation rate of L. t. varronis in a controlled environment in order to allow the implementation of subsequent studies on population density and dynamics. A mean defecation rate of 411.7 ± 41.3 pellets/day per hare was estimated on the 14 breeding Alpine hares that were included in the study.

We describe the gastrointestinal parasite community of Lepus timidus varronis, a subspecies of the mountain hare (L. timidus) living in the Alps. Two nematode species are reported for the first time in L. timidus.

Genetic introgression with exotic genomes represents a major conservation concern for the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae). In particular, massive releases of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and/or red-legged × chukar partridge hybrids for hunting purposes have cast serious doubts on the Italian present-day occurrence of wild A. rufa populations not affected by introgressive hybridization. This study investigates the genetic structure of red-legged partridges populations in two ecologically different areas in Northern Italy. Analysis of maternal mitochondrial DNA and biparental microsatellite markers excluded the presence of hybridization in a typical agricultural habitat where hunting and release of reared birds are strictly banned. By contrast, signs of chukar introgression were detected in a perifluvial habitat unusual for the red-legged partridge in Italy. The present study documents the first red-legged partridge population with no genetic evidences of recent chukar introgression presently living in Italy. We recommend that urgent conservation actions are taken to preserve the genetic integrity of this population from the risk of hybridization with farm-reared birds and to support its long-term conservation.

¿Afecta el uso de playback a las cifras estimadas de perdiz roja, Alectoris rufa? La perdiz roja, Alectoris rufa, vive en una situación de riesgo potencial en cuanto a su conservación a largo plazo en Italia, dado que su hábitat se ve cada vez más amenazado por la desaparición de los ambientes tradicionalmente relacionados con la agricultura. En tal situación, es importante aplicar métodos de control efectivos para estudiar los cambios poblacionales a través del tiempo, y la identificación de amenazas potenciales a la conservación. El objetivo de este estudio era evaluar la efectividad del método de playback para estimar la densidad de machos que vocalizaban. Comparamos el método del playback con las llamadas espontáneas de los machos al amanecer, y las observaciones directas a lo largo de transectos. El resultado de los datos sin procesar de los recuentos mediante playback revelaron una gran tasa de subestimación, comparados con el método que rindió los mejores resultados: el recuento de vocalizaciones espontáneas al amanecer. Nuestro estudio proporciona una evaluación crítica de un método que está ampliamente extendido, aunque los datos sobre su eficacia son escasos. Nuestros datos no evalúan la probabilidad de detección de los tres métodos. Nuestra intención era únicamente evaluar qué métodos arrojan los mejores resultados en términos de la estimación del tamaño de la población en las mismas condiciones de campo (misma densidad de población, mismo periodo, misma área de monitorización). Los resultados arrojan algunas dudas sobre la capacidad del método del playback para monitorizar las poblaciones de perdiz roja. Se discuten las implicaciones de nuestros resultados para su aplicación en la gestión de poblaciones de perdiz roja., The red–legged partridge Alectoris rufa lives in a situation of potential conservation risk for its long–term preservation in Italy as its habitat is increasingly threatened by the disappearance of traditional agriculture–related environments. In such a situation, it is important to use effective and appropriate monitoring methods to assess population changes over time and to identify potential conservation threats. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the playback method to estimate the density of calling males. We compared playback method with spontaneous calling of males at dawn and direct observations along transects. The results on raw count data of playback counts revealed a strong underestimation rate compared to the method that gave the best results: count of spontaneous calls at dawn. Our study provides a critical evaluation of a method that is widely used even though data about its effectiveness are scarce. Our data do not evaluate detection probability of the three methods. Our aim was only to evaluate which methods give the best results in term of population size estimation under the same field condition (same population density, same period, same monitoring area). The results raise some doubts about the ability of the playback method to monitor red–legged partridge populations. The implications of our results for red–legged population management are discussed.

PESTIVIRUSES (family Flaviviridae) are single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that are traditionally classified in four species: bovine viral diarrhoea virus type 1 (BVDV-1) and type 2 (BVDV-2), which affect cattle, Border disease virus (BDV), which infects small ruminants and classical swine fever virus, which affects pigs. BVDV and BDV are not strictly host-specific and antibodies to these viruses have been reported in several species of wild ruminants (Vilcek and Nettleton 2006). Pestiviruses can cause a wide range of reproductive clinical manifestations in livestock, and recently, BDV infection has been associated with severe outbreaks of disease in the Pyrenean chamois ( Rupicapra pyrenaica ), leading to severe reductions in its populations (Marco and others 2007, 2009). The Alpine ibex ( Capra ibex ) and Iberian ibex ( Capra pyrenaica ) are mountain ruminants belonging to the subfamily Caprinae (family Bovidae). Although these species are not considered threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, there is concern regarding their genetic diversity, the founder effect and minimum viable populations (Shackleton 1997). Therefore, information about reproductive disorders could be of importance for the conservation and management of these species. The objectives of the present study were to determine the prevalence of antibodies to pestiviruses and to investigate the …

Obeliscoides cuniculi is a New World nematode parasite of the Trichostrongilidae family infecting the gastric tract of different domestic and wild Lagomorph species. This parasite is reported for the first time from a European brown hare (Lepus europaeus). The nematodes isolated from the gastro-intestinal tract were identified using the primary characteristics used to differentiate the species of this genus as adults morphology (length and thickness) and other characteristics of spicules, cervical papillae, cuticular ridges and striations. In the Italian study area, the European brown hare lives in sympatry with the eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), species in which the nematode was previously isolated; therefore, the possibility of a cross-infestation must be considered.

Host acquired immunity is a critical factor that conditions the survival of parasites. Nevertheless, there is a shortage of data concerning inter-individual immunological inequalities in wild mammals. Sarcoptic mange is a widespread parasitosis that severely affects mammals such as the Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica). Despite some work on the subject, the immune response to sarcoptic mange infestation is still a complex and poorly understood phenomenon. To improve knowledge of the host-. Sarcoptes immunological interaction, 18 Iberian ibexes were experimentally infested. IgG levels were assessed using ELISA to test for potential factors determining the specific immune response to infestation. Previous exposure and sex appeared to affect the IgG response to infestation and our results suggest a sex-biased immunomodulation. We discuss the immunological pattern of host-. Sarcoptes interactions and also suggest further lines of work that may improve the understanding of immunological interactions of host-Sarcoptes systems. © 2009 Elsevier Inc.

One-hundred and fifty-five free-ranging Northern chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) were anaesthetised in the course of a restocking programme using xylazine plus ketamine. Mean ± SD dosages for xylazine and ketamine were 1.9 ± 0.5 and 2.2 ± 0.7 mg/kg, respectively. In 57 chamois, sedation was reversed using 0.3 ± 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole. Although all the anaesthetic dosages tested immobilised free-ranging Northern chamois, shorter induction times (4.8 ± 2.6 min), deeper sedation with no reaction to handling in >90% of the animals and quick reversal (4.0 ± 2.7 min) were obtained using 2.5 mg/kg xylazine plus 3.0 mg/kg ketamine reversed with 0.25 mg/kg atipamezole. Under the conditions of this study, suggested standard doses are 63 mg/animal xylazine plus 76 mg/animal ketamine reversed by 6.3 mg/animal atipamezole. This anaesthetic protocol improves the results from the previous study of Dematteis et al. (Vet Rec 163:184–189, 2008) using xylazine alone.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) harbours some of the most polymorphic loci in vertebrate genomes. MHC genes are thought to be subject to some form of balancing selection, most likely pathogen-mediated selection. Hence, MHC genes are excellent candidates for exploring adaptive processes. In this study, we investigated the genetic variation at exon 2 of the DRB class II MHC locus in 191 alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) from 10 populations in the eastern Alps of Italy. In particular, we were interested in distinguishing and estimating the relative impact of selective and demographic factors, while taking into account the confounding effect of recombination. The extremely high d(n)/d(s) ratio and the presence of trans-species polymorphisms suggest that a strong long-term balancing selection effect has been operating at this locus throughout the evolutionary history of this species. We analysed patterns of genetic variation within and between populations, and the mitochondrial D-loop polymorphism patterns were analysed to provide a baseline indicator of the effects of demographic processes. These analyses showed that (i) the chamois experienced a demographic decline in the last 5000-30 000 years, most likely related to the postglacial elevation in temperature; (ii) this demographic process can explain the results of neutrality tests applied to MHC variation within populations, but cannot justify the much weaker divergence between populations implied by MHC as opposed to mitochondrial DNA; (iii) similar sets of divergent alleles are probably maintained with similar frequencies by balancing selection in different populations, and this mechanism is also operating in small isolated populations, which are strongly affected by drift.

Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus, fam. Leporidae) has previously been shown to be a potential healthy carrier of dermatophyte fungi both geophilic (Microsporum gypseum, M. cookei, Trichophyton ajelloi, T. terrestre) and zoophilic (M. canis, T. mentagrophytes). In this communication, the first case, to the best of our knowledge, of a symptomatic dermatophyte infection in S. floridanus is described.

In 1995, the hitherto Sarcoptes-free alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) of the Dolomite Alps (Italy) were affected by scabies for the first time after the spread of the disease from a neighbouring focus in Austria. Since then, four Agencies cooperated to warrant monitoring of the spatial and temporal progress of the outbreak and further active surveillance was carried out within an intensive study area. In ten years, 15 meta-populations numbering 10,000 chamois and 210,000 ha were encompassed with a maximum distance of 55 km from the index case. “Oil spot” advancement of the epidemic was observed together with “jumps” of 9 to 20 km followed by spreading of the infection to the intervening population units. Demographic decline of the four meta-populations so far affected for a minimum of six years ranged between 49 and 77% ( % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaaeaart1ev0aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbbjxAHX% garmWu51MyVXgatuuDJXwAK1uy0HwmaeHbfv3ySLgzG0uy0Hgip5wz% aebbnrfifHhDYfgasaacH8qrps0lbbf9q8WrFfeuY-Hhbbf9v8qqaq% Fr0xc9pk0xbba9q8WqFfea0-yr0RYxir-Jbba9q8aq0-yq-He9q8qq% Q8frFve9Fve9Ff0dmeaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeWaeaaakeaaca% WG4bGaeyypa0JaaGOnaiaaikdacaGGUaGaaGynaiabgglaXkaaigda% caaIZaGaaiOlaiaaiwdaaaa!4157! $$x = 62.5 \pm 13.5$$ ), whereas similar post-epidemic densities of 1.1 to 1.7 heads/100 ha ( % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaaeaart1ev0aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbbjxAHX% garmWu51MyVXgatuuDJXwAK1uy0HwmaeHbfv3ySLgzG0uy0Hgip5wz% aebbnrfifHhDYfgasaacH8qrps0lbbf9q8WrFfeuY-Hhbbf9v8qqaq% Fr0xc9pk0xbba9q8WqFfea0-yr0RYxir-Jbba9q8aq0-yq-He9q8qq% Q8frFve9Fve9Ff0dmeaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeWaeaaakeaaca% WG4bGaeyypa0JaaGymaiaac6cacaaI1aGaeyySaeRaaGimaiaac6ca% caaIYaGaaG4naaaa!4096! $$x = 1.5 \pm 0.27$$ ) were recorded. Contiguous resistant and sensitive herds with similar pre-epidemic density were detected on a smaller population scale, suggesting complementary mechanisms intervening besides density-dependence as determinants of the outbreak outcome. No sex or age class showed a higher sensitivity to scabies out of a sample of 1,696 infected chamois. A peak prevalence of free-ranging chamois bearing overt scabietic lesions was observed in January and February. Cases were only sporadically diagnosed in other sympatrc wild ruminants (Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus and Ovis gmelini musimon), whereas all four alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) herds living in the surveyed area suffered from scabies-induced decline.

Two cases of haemonchosis occurred in the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica) population of the National Hunting Reserve of Tortosa and Beseit, northeastern Spain, in July 1992 and May 1993. The animals were cachectic and recumbent and had an acute hemorrhagic, macrocytic and hypochromic anemia; which was related to a high infection of 2,016 and 1,863 Haemonchus contortus, respectively, in the abomasum of the animals.

Background In Spain, sarcoptic mange was first described in native wildlife in 1987 in Cazorla Natural Park, causing the death of nearly 95% of the local native population of Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica). Since then, additional outbreaks have been identified in several populations of ibex and other wild ungulate species throughout the country. Although the first epizootic outbreak in wildlife was attributed to the introduction of an infected herd of domestic goats, the origin and the cause of its persistence remain unclear. The main aims of this study are to understand (i) the number of Sarcoptes scabiei “strains” circulating in wild ruminant populations in Spain, and (ii) the molecular epidemiological relationships between S. scabiei and its hosts. Methods Ten Sarcoptes microsatellite markers were used to characterize the genetic structure of 266 mites obtained from skin scrapings of 121 mangy wild ruminants between 2011 and 2019 from 11 areas in Spain. Results Seventy-three different alleles and 37 private alleles were detected. The results of this study show the existence of three genetic strains of S. scabiei in the wild ruminant populations investigated. While two genetic clusters of S. scabiei were host- and geography-related, one cluster included multi-host mites deriving from geographically distant populations. Conclusions The molecular epidemiological study of S. scabiei in wild ruminants in Spain indicates that the spreading and persistence of the parasite may be conditioned by host species community composition and the permissiveness of each host population/community to the circulation of individual “strains,” among other factors. Wildlife–livestock interactions and the role of human-driven introduction or trade of wild and domestic animals should be better investigated to prevent further spread of sarcoptic mange in as yet unaffected natural areas of the Iberian Peninsula. Graphical Abstract