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Este proyecto pretende avanzar la comprensión del estudio de objetos que poseen ciertas estructuras geométricas. En muchos casos, estas estructuras geométricas pueden ser testeadas a nivel local pero tienen implicancias fuertes a nivel global. Esta relativamente reciente constatación permitió explicar ciertos fenómenos que se observan desde hace mucho tiempo y da lugar a pensar que es algo que se encuentra detrás de otros fenómenos aún mal comprendidos. Recientemente, el estudio de la geometría se ha visto beneficiado por la incorporación de técnicas de sistemas dinámicos (y en caso también probabilidad) y este es el camino que buscamos en este proyecto. Agencia Nacional de Investigación e Innovación

This paper explores the homogeneity of the functional form, the parameters, and the turning point, when appropriate, of the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic activity for 31 countries (28 OECD, Brazil, China, and India) during the period 1950 to 2006 using cointegration analysis. With a sample highly overlapped over time between countries, the result reveals that the homogeneity across countries is rejected, both in functional form and in the parameters of long term relationship. This confirms the relevance of considering the heterogeneity in exploring the relationship between air pollution and economic activity to avoid spurious parameter estimates and infer a wrong behavior of the functional form, which could lead to induce that the relationship is reversed when in fact it is direct.

We analyse the NOX gas emissions of different productive sectors in Spain. Using input–output analysis, we study all sectors as subsystems of the economy and classify them according to the explanatory factors of their total (direct and indirect) emissions. This classification provides guidance on the type of policies that should be developed in the different sectors with the aim of mitigating NOX emissions. Some sectors that seem less important when looking at their direct emissions turn out to be highly relevant in terms of their total emissions. The results indicate that demand policies can be effective in these sectors, especially in construction, but also in some service sectors that do not appear to be important polluters at first sight. These policies can complement technical improvements and best practice measures applied to directly polluting sectors.

We analyse the NOX gas emissions of different productive sectors in Spain. Using input-output analysis, we study all sectors as subsystems of the economy and classify them according to the explanatory factors of their total (direct and indirect) emissions. This classification provides guidance on the type of policies that should be developed in the different sectors with the aim of mitigating NOX emissions. Some sectors that seem less important when looking at their direct emissions turn out to be highly relevant in terms of their total emissions. The results indicate that demand policies can be effective in these sectors, especially in construction, but also in some service sectors that do not appear to be important polluters at first sight. These policies can complement technical improvements and best practice measures applied to directly polluting sectors.

We provide experimental evidence on the effects of social disapproval by peers among communities of Uruguayan small-scale fishers exploiting a common pool resource (CPR). We combined this treatment with an in-group (groups from a single community) / mixed group (groups composed of fishers from different communities) treatment. We find that mixed groups, unlike in-groups, reduce their exploitation of the resource in response to the threat of punishment. Both in in-groups and mixed groups there is substantial antisocial punishment, which leads to increased extraction of the CPR by those who are unfairly punished. These findings indicate that effective peer punishment requires coordination to prevent antisocial targeting and to clarify the social signal conveyed by punishment.

The long-run relationship between carbon dioxide emissions from energy use and economic activity level is estimated for Uruguay between 1882 and 2010. We apply cointegration techniques and estimate a Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) for testing whether these variables are endogenous over the long-rung while also considering the short-run dynamics. The economic productive structure, the degree of openness, and the share of clean sources on total energy supply are also considered as explanatory variables. The results show that there exists a linear relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and per capita economic activity level. Moreover, emissions increase jointly with the industrial sector participation in total output, as a consequence of the intensity of this activity in the consumption of energy from fossil fuels sources. The degree of openness is inversely related with carbon dioxide emissions. This is so because the periods of major opening were based on primary inputs exports, lower in energy intensity than industrial products. The changes in carbon dioxide emission are inversely related to the variation in the share of clean sources on total energy supply. Finally, all the variables included in the cointegration vector are endogenous, adjusting together to the deviations from the long-run relationship. As a consequence of the above, economic growth appears to be not enough for diminishing Uruguayan emissions in the long-run. Changes in the energy matrix should be encouraged, and emissions reduction should come not by energy constraints but by the development of clean sources or energy use efficiency improvements, given the impact of energy on economic activity level

We provide experimental evidence on the effects of social disapproval by peers among communities of Uruguayan small-scale fishers exploiting a common pool resource (CPR). We combined this treatment with an in-group (groups from a single community) / mixed group (groups composed of fishers from different communities) treatment. We find that mixed groups, unlike in-groups, reduce their exploitation of the resource in response to the threat of punishment. Both in in-groups and mixed groups there is substantial antisocial punishment, which leads to increased extraction of the CPR by those who are unfairly punished. These findings indicate that effective peer punishment requires coordination to prevent antisocial targeting and to clarify the social signal conveyed by punishment.

We provide experimental evidence on the effects of non-monetary punishment by peers among communities of Uruguayan fishers exploiting a common pool resource (CPR). We combined this treatment with an in-group (groups from a single community) / mixed group (groups composed of fishers from different communities) treatment. Our aim is to compare the effects of non-monetary sanctions in a context in which individuals exploiting a CPR belong to different communities relative to the case in which only individuals from the same community are allowed to exploit the resource. We find that mixed groups—unlike in-groups—reduce their exploitation of the resource in response to the threat of punishment. We do not find any differences in behavior between in-groups and mixed groups when the possibility of being punished is not available. The effectiveness of non-monetary punishment is reduced because cooperation was not perceived as the unique social norm. In such cases there is substantial antisocial punishment, which leads to increased extraction of the CPR by those who are unfairly punished. These findings indicate that effective peer punishment requires coordination to prevent antisocial targeting and to clarify the social signal conveyed by punishment.

This paper analyzes the carbon dioxide emissions of the services sectors subsystem of Uruguay in 2004. Services, with the exception of transport, are often considered intangible because of their low level of direct emissions. However, the provision of services requires inputs produced by other sectors, including several highly materialintensive sectors. Through input-output analysis we investigate the relationship between the services subsystem and the rest of the economy as regards carbon dioxide emissions. This approach allows us to study the importance of the set of services branches as a unit in the economic structure as well as to analyze in detail the relationship between the branches. The results depict that services' direct emissions are the main component, as a consequence of transport-related sectors. However, the pollution that the services subsystem makes the rest of the economy produce is very significant, and it is almost all explained by non-transport-related sectors. This analysis is useful for determining the sectors in which mitigation policies are more effective, and whether they would be better tackled through technical improvements and better practices or through demand policies.

El objetivo general del presente trabajo es analizar la relación entre la economía y el ambiente a diferentes escalas. Esto ha de ser comprendido como la elección de un problema de investigación en cada dimensión, y aplicar las herramientas de análisis que mejor se ajustan a éste. El presente documento esta divido en tres partes. La Parte I se aproxima al análisis de la relación entre economía y ambiente desde la dimensión internacional. El Capítulo 1 estudia la relación entre las emisiones de CO2 y la actividad económica para 31 países (28 OECD, Brasil, China e India) durante el período 1950 – 2006. Se estima la relación de largo plazo para los países de forma individual. La homogeneidad entre países respecto a la forma funcional, los parámetros, y el punto de inflexión, cuando corresponde, son rechazadas. Esto confirma la importancia de considerar las diferencias entre países en la relación entre contaminación del aire y la actividad económica para así evitar estimaciones y conclusiones erróneas. La Parte II analiza la relación entre economía y ambiente desde una perspectiva nacional. Esta parte está dividida en dos capítulos. El Capítulo 2 identifica los sectores clave respecto a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de la economía Uruguaya a través del análisis insumo – producto. Buscando guiar el diseño de políticas de mitigación, la responsabilidad de cada sector es descompuesta entre la contaminación que éstos generan a través de sus propios procesos productivos y aquella que generan de forma indirecta. Además, se analiza el rol de la demanda externa. Los resultados muestran que todos los sectores clave son relevantes debido a sus propias emisiones, excepto el sector de Venta de automotores y combustible al por menor. Además, los sectores Construcción, y Hoteles y restaurantes presentan efectos muy indirectos. Finalmente, la demanda externa es el impulsor de las emisiones de metano y de óxido nitroso, mientras que las de dióxido de carbono consecuencia principalmente de la demanda interna. El Capítulo 3 analiza las emisiones de metano del subsistema agro-industrial y las de dióxido de carbono del subsistema de sectores de servicios para Uruguay en 2004. La relación de estos subsistemas con el resto de la economía se analiza a través de la metodología insumo – producto, empleando una descomposición multiplicativa. Ésta es combinada con una descomposición aditiva para estudiar los vínculos dentro de los subsistemas. Este enfoque permite estudiar la relevancia de estos subsistemas como unidades particulares de la estructura económica, así como el análisis en particular de cada uno de los sectores pertenecientes a los subsistemas. Los resultados muestran en que sectores las políticas de mitigación serán más efectivas, y si es mejor implementar medidas para fomentar las mejoras tecnológicas y de mejores prácticas, o a través de políticas de demanda. Por último, la Parte III toma una perspectiva local para analizar la relación entre la economía y el ambiente. El Capítulo 4 aporta evidencia experimental respecto al efecto de los castigos no monetarios de los pares entre comunidades de pescadores de Uruguay cuando explotan un recurso de uso común. Los resultados muestran: a) los grupos conformados por pescadores de diferentes comunidades reducen su nivel de extracción como respuesta a la posibilidad de que su comportamiento sea desaprobado, b) la efectividad del castigo no monetario disminuye como consecuencia de la presencia de castigo anti-social y debido a que los individuos anticipan de forma correcta la probabilidad de ser castigados si incrementan su nivel de extracción. Finalmente, c) los individuos ajustan sus decisiones entre períodos de manera de converger al promedio de sus compañeros en el período anterior. Esto evidencia la existencia de fuertes efectos de conformismo., The general objective of this thesis is to analyze the relationship between the economy and the environment at different scales. This must be understood as choosing a research problem at each dimension, and to apply the tools that better fit to analyze each problem. The present document is divided in three parts. Each part corresponds to one dimension, and policy implications are directly derived from the analysis. Part I approaches the relationship between the environment and the economy from an international dimension. Chapter 1 explores the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic activity for 31 countries (28 OECD, Brazil, China, and India) during the period 1950 to 2006. Single country long run relationships are estimated, and equality in the functional form, the parameters, and the turning point, when appropriate, are rejected. This confirms the relevance of considering the differences among countries in the relationship between air pollution and economic activity to avoid wrong estimations and conclusions. Part II analyses the relationship between the economy and the environment from a national perspective. This part is divided in two chapters. Chapter 2 identifies the key sectors in greenhouse gas emissions of the Uruguayan economy through input–output analysis. In order to guide mitigation policy design, we decompose each sector’s responsibility into the pollution generated through its own production process and the pollution indirectly generated in the production processes of other sectors. In addition, the role of external demand is analyzed. The results show that all the key polluting sectors are important because of their own emissions, except for the Motor vehicles and oil retail trade sector. Moreover, very indirect effects are found through Building, and Hotels and restaurants. Also, Financial intermediation may be relevant for the design of mechanisms to encourage cleaner production. Finally, external demand is the main driver for methane and nitrous oxide emissions, while carbon dioxide emissions are mainly driven by domestic demand. Chapter 3 analyzes methane emissions of the agro industrial subsystem and carbon dioxide emissions of the services sectors subsystem in Uruguay in 2004. The relationship of these subsystems with the rest of the economy is analyzed through input–output methodology employing a multiplicative decomposition. This is combined with an additive decomposition for the study of the linkages within them. This approach allows to study the importance of these subsystems as units in the economic structure as well as to analyze in detail the relationship between the different branches in each of the subsystems. The results depict in which sectors mitigation policies are more effective, and if they would be better tackled through technical improvements and better practices, or through demand policies. Finally, Part III takes a local perspective for approaching the analysis between economic activities and the environment. Chapter 4 provides experimental evidence on the effects of non-monetary punishment (NMP) by peers among communities of Uruguayan fishers exploiting a common pool resource (CPR). We find that: a) groups composed of fishers from different communities (out-groups) reduced their exploitation of the resource in response to the threat of punishment; unlike experimental groups from a single community (in-groups), b) NMP effectiveness is diminished because of the presence of antisocial punishment and because individuals correctly anticipate that the likelihood of being punished is increasing in extraction levels. Those who would experience disutility by being punished reduce their extraction levels beforehand while those that do not care about social disapproval maintain their extraction at high levels. Finally, c) individuals adjust their period-by-period decisions in order to converge with their peers’ average in a previous period, showing strong conformity effects.

This paper identifies the key sectors in greenhouse gas emissions of the Uruguayan economy through input-output analysis. This allows to precisely determine the role played by the different productive sectors and their relationship with other sectors in the relation between the Uruguayan productive structure and atmospheric pollution. In order to guide policy design for GHG reduction, we decompose sectors liability between the pollution generated through their own production processes and the pollution indirectly generated in the production processes of other sectors. The results show that all the key polluting sectors for the different contaminants considered are relevant because of their own emissions, except for the sector Motor vehicles and oil retail trade, which is relevant in CO2 emissions because of its pure, both backward and forward, linkages. Finally, the best policy channels for controlling and reducing GHGs emissions are identified, and compared with the National Climate Change Response Plan (NCCRP) lines of action.

This paper explores the homogeneity of the functional form, the parameters, and the turning point, when appropriate, of the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic activity for 31 countries (28 OECD, Brazil, China, and India) during the period 1950 to 2006 using cointegration analysis. With a sample highly overlapped over time between countries, the result reveals that the homogeneity across countries is rejected, both in functional form and in the parameters of long term relationship. This confirms the relevance of considering the heterogeneity in exploring the relationship between air pollution and economic activity to avoid spurious parameter estimates and infer a wrong behavior of the functional form, which could lead to induce that the relationship is reversed when in fact it is direct.

Artículo original El presente artículo realiza un análisis del contexto general de la dimensión económica de la Zona Costera (ZC) de Uruguay, compuesta por seis departamentos, que abarcan una superficie de 31.553 km2, conteniendo el 69,2% de la población total del país. La importancia de la ZC para el país se ve reflejada en el alto peso de ésta en el VAB nacional (77,6% en promedio entre 1991 y 2005), principalmente generado a través de las actividades del sector terciario en el departamento de Montevideo. Si se excluye a éste del análisis, todos los sectores presentan una importancia similar en la estructura económica de los otros cinco departamentos analizados de forma conjunta. La ZC ha recibido en 2006 el 87% del monto total de los proyectos promovidos a través de la Ley de Promoción de Inversiones. Por otro lado, los hogares de la ZC presentan un mayor nivel de empleo y de ingreso per cápita que la media nacional, al tiempo que la tasa de desempleo en estos departamentos es menor que el promedio del total del país

Este trabajo busca hacer una contribución sobre algunos de los principales determinantes en la toma de decisiones de la asignación de tierras a diferentes usos en el Uruguay. Para ello, estimamos un modelo de uso del suelo utilizando proporciones en el país, tomando como unidad geográfica las Áreas de Enumeración del último Censo General Agropecuario. Consideramos para el análisis los tres usos del suelo más importantes en lo que a área se refiere: los cultivos cerealeros, la forestación y la actividad ganadera. Para investigar los determinantes del uso del suelo fueron consideradas variables económicas y biofísicas al tiempo que fueron incorporadas variables derivadas de sistemas de información geográfica, como la distancia a mercados y las áreas con prioridad forestal. A su vez se estimaron modelos espaciales donde se modeliza la dependencia espacial existente entre las Áreas de Enumeración. En términos generales nuestros resultados muestran que ante variaciones en los retornos agrícolas, forestales y ganaderos se producen cambios marginales en el uso de la tierra en el sentido esperado. A su vez, la calidad de la tierra y las áreas con prioridad forestal también se constituyen como determinantes significativos para entender la distribución de los usos del suelo del Uruguay.

Un teorema de Heintze del 74 ([Hei74]) muestra que toda variedad Riemanniana homogénea, conexa y de curvatura negativa es isométrica a un grupo de Lie soluble G dotado de una métrica invariante por traslaciones a izquierda. El grupo G resulta ser un producto semidirecto N oφ R, donde N es un grupo de Lie nilpotente y φ queda determinado por una derivación α en el álgebra de Lie de N, cuyos valores propios tienen parte real positiva. Estos son los llamados grupos de Heintze y los notamos N oα R. Como la elección de la métrica invariante a izquierda no cambia la clase de cuasiisometría de un grupo de Lie, la geometría a gran escala de estos sólo depende de su estructura como grupos de Lie. De aquí el afán por encontrar invariantes de cuasiisometría algebraicos. La conjetura más importante en este sentido es la siguiente: Dos grupos de Heintze puramente reales son cuasi-isométricos si y sólo si son isomorfos. Se dice que el grupo N oα R es puramente real si α tiene todos sus valores propios reales. Esta conjetura ha sido probada sólo en algunos casos particulares. Existen, sin embargo, algunos resultados un poco más débiles que pueden obtenerse en general, entre ellos la invarianza de ciertas estructuras algebraicas. Se prueba, luego de pasar por la demostración del teorema de Heintze y algunos preliminares, que el polinomio característico de la derivación α (a menos de multiplicarla por un real positivo) es invariante por cuasi-isometrías. Además veremos que si el grupo nilpotente N es un grupo de Heisenberg, entonces la forma de Jordan de la derivación (nuevamente a menos de homotecias) es invariante por cuasi-isometrías.