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Over the last 2 decades, many African countries have undergone dietary and nutrition transitions fueled by globalization, rapid urbanization, and development. These changes have altered African food environments and, subsequently, dietary behaviors, including food acquisition and consumption. Dietary patterns associated with the nutrition transition have contributed to Africa's complex burden of malnutrition - obesity and other diet-related noncommunicable diseases (DR-NCDs) - along with persistent food insecurity and undernutrition. Available evidence links unhealthy or obesogenic food environments (including those that market and offer energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods and beverages) with suboptimal diets and associated adverse health outcomes. Elsewhere, governments have responded with policies to improve food environments. However, in Africa, the necessary research and policy action have received insufficient attention. Contextual evidence to motivate, enable, and create supportive food environments in Africa for better population health is urgently needed. In November 2020, the Measurement, Evaluation, Accountability, and Leadership Support for Noncommunicable Diseases Prevention Project (MEALS4NCDs) convened the first Africa Food Environment Research Network Meeting (FERN2020). This 3-d virtual meeting brought researchers from around the world to deliberate on future directions and research priorities related to improving food environments and nutrition across the African continent. The stakeholders shared experiences, best practices, challenges, and opportunities for improving the healthfulness of food environments and related policies in low- and middle-income countries. In this article, we summarize the proceedings and research priorities identified in the meeting to advance the food environment research agenda in Africa, and thus contribute to the promotion of healthier food environments to prevent DR-NCDs, and other forms of malnutrition.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains an ongoing threat to human health. Several medicinal plants are used traditionally to treat tuberculosis in Ghana. The current study was designed to investigate the antimycobacterial activity and cytotoxicity of crude extracts from five selected medicinal plants. Material and methods The microplate alamar blue assay (MABA) was used for antimycobacterial studies while the CellTiter 96® AQueous Assay, which is composed of solutions of a novel tetrazolium compound [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt; MTS] and an electron coupling reagent (phenazine methosulfate) PMS, was used for cytotoxic studies. Correlation coefficients were used to compare the activity of crude extracts against nonpathogenic strains and the pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis subsp.tuberculosis. Results Results of the MIC determinations indicated that all the crude extracts were active on all the three tested mycobacterial strains. Minimum inhibitory concentration values as low as 156.3 µg/mL against M. tuberculosis; Strain H37Ra (ATCC® 25,177™) were recorded from the leaves of Solanum torvum Sw. (Solanaceae). Cytotoxicity of the extracts varied, and the leaves from S. torvum had the most promising selectivity index. Activity against M. tuberculosis; Strain H37Ra was the best predictor of activity against pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis subsp.tuberculosis (correlation coefficient=0.8). Conclusion The overall results of the present study provide supportive data on the use of some medicinal plants for tuberculosis treatment. The leaves of Solanum torvum are a potential source of anti-TB natural products and deserve further investigations to develop novel anti-TB agents against sensitive and drug resistant strains of M. tuberculosis., Graphical abstract fx1

Currently, one third of the world’s population is latently infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), while 8.9–9.9 million new and relapse cases of tuberculosis (TB) are reported yearly. The renewed research interests in natural products in the hope of discovering new and novel antitubercular leads have been driven partly by the increased incidence of multidrug-resistant strains of MTB and the adverse effects associated with the first- and second-line antitubercular drugs. Natural products have been, and will continue to be a rich source of new drugs against many diseases. The depth and breadth of therapeutic agents that have their origins in the secondary metabolites produced by living organisms cannot be compared with any other source of therapeutic agents. Discovery of new chemical molecules against active and latent TB from natural products requires an interdisciplinary approach, which is a major challenge facing scientists in this field. In order to overcome this challenge, cutting edge techniques in mycobacteriology and innovative natural product chemistry tools need to be developed and used in tandem. The present review provides a cross-linkage to the most recent literature in both fields and their potential to impact the early phase of drug discovery against TB if seamlessly combined.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Buruli ulcer (BU) is the third most common mycobacterial infection in the world, after tuberculosis and leprosy and has recently been recognized as an important emerging disease. This disease is common in West Africa where more than 99% of the burden is felt and where most affected people live in remote areas with traditional medicine as primary or only option. Reports indicate that the ethnopharmacological control approach of the disease in such settings has shown promise. However, no or very few compilations of traditional knowledge in using medicinal plants to treat BU have been attempted so far. This review aimed to record medicinal plants used traditionally against BU in three countries in West Africa: Ivory Coast, Ghana and Benin and for which ethnopharmacological knowledge supported by pharmacological investigations has been reported. The information recorded in this review will support further pharmacological research to develop appropriate drugs for a better BU control. Material and methods A systematic review of the literature on ethnobotanical use and anti-BU activity of plants reported for BU treatment was performed. The approach consisted to search several resources, including Technical Reports, Books, Theses, Conference proceedings, web-based scientific databases such as publications on PubMed, Science direct, Springer, ACS, Scielo, PROTA, Google and Google scholar reporting ethnobotanical surveys and screening of natural products against Mycobacterium ulcerans. This study was limited to papers and documents published either in English or French reporting ethnopharmacological knowledge in BU treatment or pharmacological potency in vitro. This review covered the available literature up to December 2014. Results The majority of reports originated from the three most affected West African countries (Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and Benin). Though, 98 plant species belonging to 48 families have been identified as having anti-BU use, many have received no or little attention. Most of the pharmacological studies were performed only on 54 species. To a lesser extent, ethnopharmacological knowledge was validated in vitro for only 13 species. Of those, seven species including Ricinus comminus, Cyperus cyperoides (cited as Mariscus alternifolius), Nicotiana tabacum, Mangifera indica, Solanum rugosum, Carica papaya, and Moringa oleifera demonstrated efficacy in hospitalised BU patients. Four isolated and characterized compounds were reported to have moderate bioactivity in vitro against M. ulcerans. Conclusions This review compiles for the first time ethnopharmacologically useful plants against BU. The phamacological potential of 13 of them has been demonstrated in vitro and support BU evidence-based traditional medicines. In addition, 7 species showed activity in BU patients and have emerged as a promising source of the traditional medicine for treatment of BU. Yet, further safety and efficacy study should be initiated prior any approval as alternative therapy. Overall, a huge gap in knowledge appeared, suggesting further well-planned and detailed investigations of the in vitro, in vivo, and safety properties of the claimed anti-BU plants. Therefore, plants with medicinal potential should be scrutinized for biologically active compounds, using bioassay-guided fractionation approach to provide new insights to find novel therapeutics for BU control.

Buruli ulcer (BU) caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans is the third most common chronic mycobacterial infection in humans. Approximately 5000 cases are reported annually from at least 33 countries around the globe, especially in rural African communities. Even though anti-mycobacterial therapy is often effective for early nodular or ulcerative lesions, surgery is sometimes employed for aiding wound healing and correction of deformities. The usefulness of the antibiotherapy nonetheless is challenged by huge restrictive factors such as high cost, surgical scars and loss of income due to loss of man-hours, and in some instances employment. For these reasons, more effective and safer drugs are urgently needed, and research programs into alternative therapeutics including investigation of natural products should be encouraged. There is the need for appropriate susceptibility testing methods for the evaluation of potency. A number of biological assay methodologies are in current use, ranging from the classical agar and broth dilution assay formats, to radiorespirometric, dye-based, and fluorescent/luminescence reporter assays. Mice, rats, armadillo, guinea pigs, monkeys, grass cutters and lizards have been suggested as animal models for Buruli ulcer. This review presents an overview of in vitro and in vivo susceptibility testing methods developed so far for the determination of anti-Buruli ulcer activity of natural products and derivatives.

Aim: The study investigated Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae), for its in-vivo antiplasmodial properties, using a murine model involving Plasmodium berghei. Study Design: Experimental. Places of Study and Duration: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, KNUST, Department of Immunology, NMIMR and Department of Animal Experimentation, NMIMR, May – November, 2013. Methodology: Phytochemical investigation was conducted on powdered plant material and aqueous leaf extract (ML), to determine the presence of secondary metabolites using standard methods. Using 4-day suppressive and 7-day curative tests respectively, ML at 250-1000 mg/kg, was evaluated for in-vivo antiplasmodial activity in P. berghei infected male ICR mice (25-30 g), using Artemether-Lumefantrine (A/L) at 4 mg/kg as reference drug. The effect of ML on the body weights and the survival of the mice, as well as the effect on improvement in clinical signs was also monitored. Results: ML extract was found to contain alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and tannins. The extracts (250-1000 mg/kg) produced significant reduction in parasitemia in the four-day suppressive test (F6,49 = 4.309; p =.0014). However, 250 mg/kg (69.31%; p .05). In the curative test, similar results were obtained with significant parasitemia reduction for 250 mg/kg (AUC = 52.52±6.732; p< .01) and 500 mg/kg (AUC = 49.62 ± 3.804; p< .01) compared to the positive control group (AUC = 101.3±14.32). Piloerection, lethargy and decreased locomotion were observed to be progressive in all infected experimental groups except A/L. Survival data showed that, although 750 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg groups recorded relatively higher mortalities, statistical analysis didn’t indicate significant difference. Conclusion: ML extract demonstrated in-vivo antiplasmodial activity; probably due to the alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids and tannins in its composition.

Background.The current definitive treatment of Buruli ulcer with antibiotics makes the issue of antimicrobial drug resistance an unavoidable one. This is as a result of drug misuse by health personnel and patients’ noncompliance to treatment regimen. Monitoring of these factors and screening for new effective antimicrobials are crucial to effective management of Buruli ulcer disease. This study therefore investigated the inhibitory activity of some antibiotics against isolates ofMycobacterium ulcerans.Methods.Activity of eight antibiotics was tested against twelveM. ulceransisolates (2 reference strains and 10 clinical isolates). The anti-M. ulceransactivities were determined by the agar dilution method and the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by the agar proportion method.Results.All antimicrobials investigated had activity againstM. ulceransisolates tested. The MICs ranged from 0.16 μg/mL to 2.5 μg/mL. Azithromycin recorded the highest inhibitory activity at a mean MIC of 0.39 μg/mL, whilst clofazimine a second-line antileprosy drug, recorded the lowest at a mean MIC of 2.19 μg/mL. Among the four antituberculosis drugs, rifampicin had the highest activity with a mean MIC of 0.81 μg/mL.Conclusion.Azithromycin could be considered as a lucrative alternative to existing treatment methods for inhibitingM. ulceransin Ghana.

Buruli ulcer (BU) is the third most prevalent mycobacteriosis, after tuberculosis and leprosy. The currently recommended combination of rifampicin-streptomycin suffers from side effects and poor compliance, which leads to reliance on local herbal remedies. The objective of this study was to investigate the antimycobacterial properties and toxicity of selected medicinal plants. Sixty-five extracts from 27 plant species were screened against Mycobacterium ulcerans and Mycobacterium smegmatis, using the Resazurin Microtiter Assay (REMA). The cytotoxicity of promising extracts was assayed on normal Chang liver cells by an MTT assay. Twenty five extracts showed activity with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 16 µg/mL to 250 µg/mL against M. smegmatis, while 17 showed activity against M. ulcerans with MIC values ranging from 125 µg/mL to 250 µg/mL. In most of the cases, plant extracts with antimycobacterial activity showed no cytotoxicity on normal human liver cells. Exception were Carica papaya, Cleistopholis patens, and Polyalthia suaveolens with 50% cell cytotoxic concentrations (CC50) ranging from 3.8 to 223 µg/mL. These preliminary results support the use of some West African plants in the treatment of Buruli ulcer. Meanwhile, further studies are required to isolate and characterize the active ingredients in the extracts.

Phyllanthus niruri is a medicinal plant (commonly known as stone breaker) found in the tropics and other parts of the world. It is known for its capacity to block the formation of calcium oxalate crystals and kidney stone formation in urolithiasis. This plant has been used to treat hyperglycemia, hypertension, pain, and mild cases of malaria. We examined the geno-, cyto- and overall toxicity of P. niruri whole plant ethanolic extract. The extract was administered as a single dose of 30 or 300 mg/kg to laboratory rats by gavage, accompanied by negative (0.9% saline) and positive (10 mg/mL N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea) controls that were injected intramuscularly 48 h after extract administration. The ratio of polychromatic (PCE)/normochromatic erythrocytes (NCE) from femur bone marrow was scored for genotoxicity. Cytotoxicity was determined using descending concentrations (0.2-0.0125 g/mL) of the extract incubated with peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Lactate dehydrogenase release from damaged cells was determined and the CC(50) calculated. Subchronic administration of the extract at 30 or 300 mg/kg was done for 90 days to determine general toxicity. PCE:NCE (%) for the extract and negative control was 63, compared to 168 (positive control). The CC(50) was 26.3 mg/mL and hepato-renal toxicity after subchronic extract administration was nil. We conclude that ethanol extract of P. niruri is not cytotoxic or genotoxic, and is generally non-toxic on subchronic administration.

Acute toxicity studies of aqueous leaf extract ofPhyllanthus niruriPhyllanthus niruriis a plant with medicinal properties. It is often used to treat mild malaria and the elimination of renal stones. However, studies on its toxicity are scarce. The study was carried out to determine if the aqueous leaf extract ofP. niruriadministered to female Sprague-Dawley rats would illicit evidence of toxicity. Fifteen female rats weighing 150-200 g were divided into 3 groups. Rats in Group 1 were given a single low dose (LD) of 2 000 mg/kg b.w. of the extract by oral gavage within 24 hrs. Rats in Group 2 were given a single high dose (HD) of 5 000 mg/kg b.w. of the extract by oral gavage within 24 hrs. Rats in Group 3 were not given any extract but drinking water and served as the control group (C). All the rats were observed for signs of toxidromes for 14 days. On the 15thday, all the rats were sacrificed. Body organs were harvested for macroscopic examination. Urine and blood samples were drawn and analyzed. Hematological tests performed included full blood count and hemoglobin. Biochemical examinations included bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total protein, albumin, globulin, alkaline phosphatse (ALP), γ-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT), urea, and creatinine. The results of the three groups were not significantly different. Examination of the various body organs did not show any abnormality. Thus no toxicity was observed at the levels administered. The LD50of the aqueous extract is > 5 000 mg/kg. b.w.

Tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains a serious public health challenge towards which new hits are urgently needed. Medicinal plants remains a major source of new ligands against global infectious illnesses. In our laboratories, we are currently investigating locally used ethnobotanicals for novel compounds against zoonotic tuberculosis. The microplate alamar blue assay (MABA) was used to study the anti-TB activity while the CellTiter 96® AQueous Assay, which is composed of solutions of a novel tetrazolium compound [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt; MTS] and an electron coupling reagent (phenazine methosulfate) PMS, was used for cytotoxic studies. Correlation coefficients (R2) were used to compare the relationship between antimycobacterial activity of the eight crude extracts against nonpathogenic strains and the pathogenic Mycobacterium bovis. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) values indicated that all the eight tested medicinal plant species had activity against all the three tested mycobacterial strains. Minimum inhibitory concentration value as low as 19.5µg/mL was observed against non-pathogenic strains M. bovis. Activity of the crude extracts against M. aurum was the best predictor of natural product activity against the pathogenic Mycobacterium bovis strain, with a correlation coefficient value (R2) of 0.1371. Results obtained from the current study validate, in part, the traditional utilization of the tested medicinal plants against tuberculosis. The unripe fruits from Solanum torvum are a potential source of safe and efficacious anti-TB crude drugs as well as a source for natural compounds that act as new anti-infection agents, and thus deserve further investigation towards development of a new class of molecules with activity against sensitive and drug resistant strains of M. bovis.

Aim and objectivesBuruli ulcer (BU) is a neglected tropical disease caused by a mycobacteria, Mycobacterium ulcerans. The WHO recommended Rifampicin-Streptomycin combination side effects and poor compliance, leaves rural populations with no choice than to patronise indigenous remedies. This study is aimed at validating medicinal plants used in traditional medicine to treat BU by investigating the in vitro efficacy and safety as well as their composition in active molecules.MethodsA short report-based survey was used to identify medicinal plants used traditionally for BU treatment. Maceration of collected plant samples in methanol, hydroethanolic, ethanol, dichloromethane, and hexane, resulted in a total of 67 extracts assessed for antimycobacteria activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium ulcerans using the Resazurin Microtiter Assay. The cytotoxicity effect of promising extracts was assessed on normal human liver cells using the MTT assay. The bio-guided fractionation of the promising extracts led to the isolation of active compounds.ResultsMajority of plants prepared as infusion, decoction, poultice, and macerate were administered topically. Significant antimycobacterial activity with MIC values ranging from 16 to 250μg/mL was recorded against M. smegmatis (25 extracts) and M. ulcerans (17 extracts).11This section is based on section of results of Tsouh Fokou, P.V.; Kissi-Twum, A.A.; Yeboah-Manu, D.; Appiah-Opong, R.; Addo, P.; Tchokouaha Yamthe, L.R.; Ngoutane Mfopa, A.; Fekam Boyom, F.; Nyarko, A.K. In Vitro Activity of Selected West African Medicinal Plants against Mycobacterium ulcerans Disease. Molecules 2016, 21, 445. Most of antimycobacterial extracts showed no significant cytotoxicity against normal human hepatocytes.1 The isolation guided by the biological activity revealed nine compounds with significant in vitro anti-M. ulcerans activity (MIC=16–128μg/mL).ConclusionsThe results completed support the use these plants in the indigenous knowledge against BU. Further analyses of active principles might lead to new drug toe fight against BU.

Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine has been reported in several countries. Other anti-malarial drugs in use are expensive and not readily accessible to most people in malaria endemic countries. This has led to renewed interest in the development of herbal medicines that have the potential to treat malaria with little or no side effects. This study obtained a preliminary information on the safety and effectiveness of a plant decoction (AM-1), used in treating malaria. The AM-1 is formulated from Jatropha curcas, Gossypium hirsutum, Physalis angulata and Delonix regia. Patients with suspected malaria attending a herbal clinic were enrolled in the study on voluntary basis. They were hospitalized for treatment, clinical observation, biochemical and haematological monitoring, and parasite clearance while on AM-1. In addition male and female Sprague Dawley rats were used to evaluate the acute and subchronic toxicity effects of AM-1. The AM-1 eliminated malaria parasites (Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium malarie) from the peripheral blood of patients with malaria. In addition the AM-1 did not show any undesired effects in the patients as well as in laboratory rats. The AM-1, however, showed differential effect on the activities of selected cytochrome P450 isozymes (7-pentoxyresorufin-O-depentylation, 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylation and p-nitrophenol hydroxylase) in relation to sex of the laboratory rats. These results indicate that AM-1 could be used to treat malaria. However, it could precipitate interactions with other drugs via their biotransformation and elimination. The obtained data warrant further studies in a large number of malaria subjects with monitoring for possible drug interactions.

The basis for managing diabetes mellitus with aqueous extract of Ocimum canum Sim (Lamiaceae), in Ghana was investigated in diabetic and normoglycemic mice. In the diabetic mice, fasting blood glucose decreased by 60% compared to 10% in control mice after 13 weeks of extract administration. Body weight, serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) decreased while serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) increased in the extract-treated group. In vitro hydroxyl (OH) and superoxide (O2) radical formation, and lipid peroxidation of isolated human LDL and mouse liver homogenates decreased in extract-treated experimental systems. These findings justify the use of O. canum extract as an antidiabetic folk medicine.

The ovulatory mechanism of the grasscutter was determined in two phases. Phase one was the histological examination of ovaries of sexually mature grasscutters in various reproductive conditions (non-mated, mated, pregnant) for Corpora lutea (an indicator of ovulation). The second phase was an evaluation of the reproductive performance (female's acceptance to mate, ability to conceive and deliver) of sexually mature grasscutters in oestrus (open vagina, sealed vagina) and anoestrus (closed vagina). The ovaries for the histological studies were obtained from 25 grasscutters comprising nine females that had been paired with males for 1 week prior to the collection of their ovaries, nine that had not been exposed to males for a minimum of 6 months and carcases of seven pregnant grasscutters. Thirty sexually mature female and eight sexually mature male grasscutters were used for the reproductive study. The females were in three groups of ten in three different sexual states namely; open vagina (oestrus), sealed vagina (oestrus) and closed vagina (anoestrus). The animals were hand-mated in pairs and separated when a definitive sign of mating was observed. Thereafter, the females were diagnosed for pregnancy and observed until parturition. The histological examinations showed an unequivocal absence of Corpora lutea in the ovaries of the grasscutters that had not been exposed to males, but their presence in the ovaries of the mated and pregnant grasscutters. In the reproductive study, 96.7% (29/30) were successfully mated, 96.6% (28/29) of those mated conceived and 89.3% (25/28) of those pregnant carried their pregnancies to term. None of these outcomes was affected by the sexual status. The histological and reproductive findings confirm the suggestion that the grasscutter is an induced ovulator. This information is important for the commercial exploitation of the animal for human food production.

Many children in Ghana do not meet the dietary and physical activity recommendations for their health due to several reasons including limited nutrition education intervention (NEI) programmes. NEI provides children with information on knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) required to ensure proper dietary intake and physical activity. In this intervention study, we recruited eighty (80) overweight and obese students aged 11-15 years from two schools in the Ga-East municipality of Ghana. Anthropometric, biochemical, dietary and physical activity information were collected on the two groups before and after three months of NEI. Between group comparisons (test and control); before and after interventions were performed using student t-tests. It was shown that NEI improved nutrition knowledge (mean change = 5.13, p

The transmission of Buruli ulcer (BU), caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans (MU), remains puzzling although a number of hypothesis including through bites of infected aquatic insects have been proposed. We report the results of experiments using ICR mice that give credence to our hypothesis that Acanthamoeba species may play a role in BU transmission. We cocultured MU N2 and MU 1615 which expresses red fluorescent protein (RFP) and Acanthamoeba polyphaga (AP), and confirmed infected AP by Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining. We tested for viability of MU inside AP and observed strong RFP signals inside both trophozoites and cysts after 3 and 42 days of coculturing respectively. ICR mice were topically treated, either on shaved intact or shaved pinpricked rumps, with one of the following; MU N2 only (2.25 x 106 colony forming units [CFU] / ml), MU N2:AP coculture (2.96 x 104 CFU: 1.6 x 106 cells/ml), AP only (1.6 x 106 cells/ml), PYG medium and sterile distilled water. Both MU N2 only and MU N2:AP elicited reddening on day (D) 31; edema on D 45 and D 44 respectively, and ulcers on D 49 at pinpricked sites only. To ascertain infectivity and pathogenicity of MU N2 only and MU N2:AP, and compare their virulence, the standard mouse footpad inoculation method was used. MU N2:AP elicited reddening in footpads by D 3 compared to D 14 with MU N2 only of the same dose of MU N2 (2.96 x 104 CFU). ZN-stained MU were observed in both thin sectioned and homogenized lesions, and aspirates from infected sites. Viable MU N2 were recovered from cultures of the homogenates and aspirates. This study demonstrates in ICR mice MU transmission via passive infection, and shows that punctures in the skin are prerequisite for infection, and that coculturing of MU with AP enhances pathogenesis.

Background Buruli ulcer (BU) is one of the neglected tropical diseases. Mycobacterium ulcerans is the aetiologic agent of Buruli ulcer. Many extensive studies have failed to isolate M. ulcerans in pure culture from the environment, even in highly endemic areas of BU. We investigated the role of macro-invertebrates as possible hosts or vectors for M. ulcerans by attempting to cultivate M. ulcerans from these organisms. Methods The study was conducted in 5 villages in the Asante Akim District of Ghana for 10 months. Primary detection of M. ulcerans was done by real-time PCR targeting insertion sequence IS2404 coupled with the detection of IS2606 and Ketone reductase genes for increased sensitivity and specificity. Primary cultures were done using routine bacteriological media for culturing mycobacteria, L-J and special enrichment liquid broth, BACTEC®. Results The overall rate of detection of IS2404 in the general macro-invertebrate population was 12.8%. Cluster of CT-values was observed around a mean value of 35.88 and range values of 28.35–38.61. Statistically, there were no significant differences between the various CT-values obtained, p>0.05. The difference in ∆CT values (IS2606-IS2404) for homogenate sample obtained from Naucoridae which was positive for the three targets on M. ulcerans genome was estimated to be 1.77. The present study reports the cultivation of two IS2404 positive Mycobacteria spp. from two aquatic macro-invertebrates of the families Belostomidae and Notonectidae both of the order Hemiptera. The isolate from Belostomidae was identified as either M. ulcerans or M. marinum with 98% identities that from Notonectidae was 98% identical to M. neoaurum. The organisms are yet to be passaged through mice footpad and fully characterised. Conclusions For the first time M. neoaurum species was reported to have harboured IS2404 element. Aquatic Hemiptera are highly suspected to be vectors or hosts for M. ulcerans and they may transmit the pathogen to humans through biting.

Synedrella nodiflora (L) Gaertn (family Asteraceae), a common weed in Ghana, is traditionally used for the management of epilepsy, hiccup and threatened abortion. To further promote the ethno-pharmacological uses of the plant, an acute toxicity of a hydro-ethanolic whole plant extract was assessed in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The lethal dose (LD 50 ) and effects of a single oral admin-istration of the extract (1600, 3200 and 6400 mg kg -1 ) on haematological and serum biochemical parameters were measured. The extract produced no mortality in the rats treated during a 48-hour examination and after a subsequent 12-day assessment. Thus the LD 50 was indicated as being greater than 6400 mg kg -1 . The extract also did not significantly affect any of the haematological and serum biochemical indices. This result suggests that acute oral administration of the hydro-ethanolic extract of Synedrella nodiflora is virtually non-toxic in male Sprague-Dawley rats under normal laboratory conditions. Keywords: Synedrella nodiflora, acute toxicity, Sprague-Dawley rats, haematology, biochemical analysis

A study was carried out to determine the prevalence of diseases in a captive breeding colony of grasscutters (Thryonomys swinderianus) of various age groups and in different seasons from February, 2012 to June, 2014. The Grasscutters were maintained in the Department of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana. The diseases were diagnosed based on clinical history, clinical signs, and symptoms prior to death, lesions observed after postmortem examination of dead animals and isolation and identification of causal agents. A total of 29 dead and sick animals were examined from inside and outside of the campus. Among the diseases, wound infection was found to be the most fatal and constituted 44% of total deaths followed by deathin cages due to acute congestion of lungs, which constituted 33% of total deaths. Enterobacter cloacae was found to be the main causal agent of deaths in the cages. Of the dead in cages, 50% were males, of which 10% were lethargic and unable to move before death and 5% had malocclusion. Among the females found dead in the cages, 5% were pregnant. In general, the highest number of deaths was recorded from January to April and then decreased from May-August. There were no deaths in September. However, there was steady increase from October to December. The results indicated that there was a significant relationship between the deaths of Grasscutter with the ambient temperature and less efficient thermoregulatory mechanisms in the Grasscutter that that triggers deaths and injury in these animals.

REPRODUCTIVE diseases of cattle are of great economic importance to the rural sector of developing countries, particularly in Africa (Obese and others 1999, Fekadu and others 2007). Although infectious conditions are likely to be major contributors to poor reproductive efficiency (Romero and others 1999), relatively few studies have been carried out in Africa. Livestock management practices in Ghana, such as natural breeding using aged bulls in communal settings, and the lack of routine veterinary care, could play a role in the prevalence of multiple reproductive tract diseases (Akinboade 1980, Pefanis and others 1988). Viral reproductive diseases, such as infectious bovine rhinotraechitis (IBR), bovine herpesvirus type 4 (BHV-4), and bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) (Moerman and others 1993, Nandi and others 2009, Gur and Dog'an 2010); bacterial diseases such as Coxiella burnetii (Arricau-Bouvery and Rodolakis 2005) and brucellosis (Oppong 1966, Chukwu 1985); and protozoal diseases, such as Neospora caninum (Kamga-Waladjo and others 2010) and Tritrichomonas foetus (Akinboade 1980, Pefanis and others 1988), can affect cattle throughout the world causing significant abortion losses and infertility. This short communication examined a West African cattle herd of approximately 700 adult mixed breed African Sanga cattle with reduced fertility in the coastal region of Ghana in West Africa managed by Fulani herdsmen. This herd was subdivided into 11 kraals of approximately 20 to 100 animals in each and was chosen as typical of the management practices and cattle breeds of the region. No animals had been previously vaccinated against any of the diseases investigated. Herdsmen provided demographic data and reproductive history. Serum was collected by jugular venepuncture from 166 animals (148 of approximately 670 cows and 18 …

The antiulcerogenic effects of the root bark extract of C. sieberiana were studied using various gastric ulcer models in rats. This was to support the rational phytotherapeutic use of Cassia sieberiana root bark extract in managing gastric ulcer. The cytoprotective ability of the extract was tested using the HCl/ethanol and the indomethacin-HCl/ethanol induced gastric lesion models. The healing ability of the extract was tested using the acetic acid induced model. Ulcer index, gastric HCl output, mucus production, pepsin activity and volume of gastric secretion were measured. Oral administration of the abstract (500-1000 mg/kg body weight) inhibited the formation of gastric ulcers induced by HCl/ethanol (19-61%). This inhibition was significantly (p of the experimental rats with indomethacin (30 mg/kg i.p). Oral administration of the extract in acetic acid induced ulcers produced significant dose-dependent healing of the gastric ulcers, significantly decreased total gastric HCl output and also significantly increased gastric barrier mucus production but these were not associated with changes in gastric secretion volume or pepsin activity.

Moringa oleifera Lam. (order -Moringales, family -Moringaceae and genus -Moringa) is a well known nutraceutical used in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and hyperglycemia, and also, as a nutritional supplementation. Its popularity use raises the question of possible toxicity at supra-supplementation levels. The objective of the study was to ascertain possible acute toxicity with supra-supplementation using Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats. In experiment 1, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were given graded doses of Moringa oleifera aqueous leaf extract to induce cytotoxicity. In experiment 2, two groups of rats received low and high dose (LD and HD, respectively) levels (1,000 and 3,000 mg/kgb.wt, respectively) per o.s. alongside negative and positive control rats (0.9% saline and 10mg/mL N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea - administered i.m., respectively). Each group consisted of five rats. Rats were killed after 48 h and the femur bone marrow aspirate examined for polychromatic micronucleated erythrocytes (PCEMN)/normochromatic micronucleated erythrocytes (NCEMN) ratios after Giemsa/Leishman staining. In experiment 3, control, LD and HD groups were established. The LD and HD extracts were administered per o.s. to the respective groups and observed for 14 days. Each group consisted of five rats. Blood was sampled after 48 h and 14 days and examined biochemically and haematologically for acute toxicity. Experiment 1 showed that Moringa oleifera was cytotoxic at 20mg/mL. In experiment 2, PCEMN/NCEMN ratios were: negative control=2.087; LD=1.849; HD=1.397; positive control=1.257. Statistically, LD and HD ratios were significant (p=0.020). Experiment 3 showed that hepatonephro-toxicity was nil with no abnormal haematology results. Genotoxicity results have hitherto not been shown. Moringa oleifera is genotoxic at supra-supplementation levels of 3,000 mg/kg b.wt. However, intake is safe at levels ≤ 1,000 mg/kg b.wt.

Croton membranaceus root and leaf extracts are used in the Bahamas to aromatize tobacco, in Nigeria to improve digestion, and in Ghana, for benign prostate hyperplasia. Despite claims of success there is paucity of information on its toxicity. The aim of this study was to determine if Croton membranaceus has acute toxicity properties.Roots were air-dried in a solar dryer for one week before milling. The powder was extracted with 96% ethanol, freeze-dried and re-extracted with distilled water and freeze-dried. 15 male Sprague-Dawley rats (180-200 g) were divided equally into 2 treatment groups [low dose (LD) and high dose (HD)], plus a control group (C). LD and HD received 1500 and 3000 mg/kg b.wt. Croton membranaceus aqueous extract, respectively, one time and observed for 14 days. Haematological [Full Blood Count and haemoglobin (Hb)], biochemical [bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase (ALA), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total protein, albumin, globulin, alkaline phosphatise (ALP), γ-glutamyltranspetidase (GGT), urea, creatinine, creatinine kinase - Muscle and Brain (CK-MB), creatinine kinase - Total (CK-R)] examinations were performed.Control group's CK-MB (5444±534 U/L) and LD group CK-MB (4014±1016 U/L) were significantly different (p0.05). Control and the HD group CK-MB (3955±1135 U/L) were significantly different (p0.05). Both LD and HD CK-R levels (697±197U/L and 732±203 U/L, respectively), were lower than the control (1139±220 U/L) at 48 h and 14 days (p0.05, p0.05, respectively). γ-GT levels of the HD group was 4.8±0.4 U/L compared to the Control group value of 0.9±0.2 U/L (p0.05).Taking all factors into consideration, Croton membranaceus ingestion does not produce general acute toxicity. However, its creatinine kinase lowering ability could be explored.

This study reports the first successful application of real-time PCR for the detection of Mycobacterium ulcerans, the causative agent of Buruli ulcer (BU), in Ghana, a BU-endemic country. Environmental samples and organs of small mammals were analyzed. The real-time PCR assays confirmed the presence of M. ulcerans in a water sample collected in a BU-endemic village in the Ashanti Region.

Genetically obese diabetic and nondiabetic mice, and their lean littermates were used to evaluate an aqueous extract of Indigofera arrecta which is used for the treatment of diabetes. Control animals were given water instead of the extract over a 90 day period, and measurements of blood glucose and body weight were done at approximately 30-day intervals. The development of hyperglycaemia associated with the diabetic mice over a time period was absent when the mice were on the extract. Blood glucose levels of littermates of both mutant strains, and the mild hyperglycaemia of the obese nondiabetic mice were not affected. The extract significantly lowered the body weight of both types of obese mutant mice but did not affect the body weight of the littermates.

The effect of dietary aflatoxins b 1 and g 1 and Plasmodium berghei infection on glutathione (GSH) levels and liver status in mice was investigated. Three days after intraperitoneal injection of 0.1 × 10 6 parasitized red blood cells into the mice, there was a significant fall in blood glutathione levels accompanied by a significant increase in serum cholinesterase and liver malonic dialdehyde levels in the mice fed aflatoxin compared with those in the control group. The results suggested that malaria parasites can enhance depletion of host glutathione and oxidative damage of the liver in mice fed low levels of aflatoxins.

This article contains data on in vitro antimycobacterial activity and cytotoxicity of hydroethanolic crude extracts from five selected medicinal plant species traditionally used to treat tuberculosis in Ghanaian ethnomedicine, see “Medicinal plants used to treat TB in Ghana” [1]. The interpretation and discussion of these data and further extensive insights into drug discovery against tuberculosis from natural products of plant biodiversity can be found in “Antimycobacterial and cytotoxic activity of selected medicinal plant extracts” [2]. Keywords: in vitro antimycobacterial, in vitro cytotoxicity, Crude extracts, Tuberculosis, Medicinal plants, MTS assay, MABA assay

Aims: The current study was designed to document medicinal plant species that are traditionally used to treat tuberculosis (TB) by Ghanaian communities. Methods: The medicinal plants used against TB or its signs and symptoms were selected using library and online published data searches. A guided questionnaire interview was also conducted with a botanist involved in plant collection at the Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine (CSRPM) at Mampong. Data obtained were entered in Excel and summarized into means and frequencies using SPSS 12.0.1 for windows, and expressed as tables and bar graphs. Results: A total of 15 medicinal plant species distributed between 13 genera and 13 families were documented. The following medicinal plant species were found to be used against TB in Greater Accra and Eastern parts of Ghana: Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Stem bark (Meliaceae), Hygrophila auriculata Heine, whole plant (Acanthaceae), Chenopodium ambrosioides L. leaves (Amaranthaceae), Coix lacryma-jobi L. glumes (Poaceae), Solanum torvum Sw. unripe fruits (Solanaceae), Solanum torvum Sw. leaves (Solanaceae), Bidens pilosa L. whole plant (Asteraceae), Phyllanthus fraternus G.L. Webster leaves (Phyllanthaceae), Dissotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Triana, leaves (Melastomataceae), Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. Leaves (Poaceae), Cyperus articulatus L. roots (Cyperaceae), Allium sativum L. bulb (Amaryllidaceae), Zingiber officinale Roscoe, rhizomes (Zingiberaceae), Allium cepa L. bulbs (Amaryllidaceae), Allium cepa L. leaves (Amaryllidaceae), Aloe vera var. barbadensis aqueous extract from leaves (Xanthorrhoeaceae), Aloe vera var. barbadensis organic extract from leaves (Xanthorrhoeaceae), Cocos nucifera Linn, water (Arecaceae) and Cocos nucifera Linn. Husk (Arecaceae). Conclusions: The collected plant species could be a source of a new class of drugs against TB. Bioactivity guided fractionation is recommended to identify lead compounds for antimycobacterial activity. The current paper documents for the first time medicinal plant species used by Ghanaian communities to treat TB. These results are a basis for selection of plants for further pharmacological, toxicological and phytochemical studies in developing new plant-based antimycobacterial drugs.

Objective/Background Mycobacterial infections including tuberculosis, leprosy, and buruli ulcer are among the most prevalent, debilitating, and deadly tropical diseases, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. The development of drug resistance to the currently available drugs and the poor compliance emphasize the need for new chemotherapeutic agents. This study was designed to evaluate the in vitro activity of Cleistopholis patens , Annona reticulata , and Greenwayodendron suaveolens against Mycobacterium smegmatis . The safety on normal liver cells was also assessed. Methods The crude extracts, fractions, and subfractions were tested against M. smegmatis and for cell cytotoxicity on WRL-68, normal human hepatocyte using microdilution resazurin-based assays. The phytochemical screening was performed using standard methods. Results Most of the extracts, fractions, and subfractions inhibited the growth of M. smegmatis with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 6.25 μg/mL to 125 μg/mL. The subfractions P12 and P29 from G. suaveolens twig were more potent with MIC values of 6.25 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL, respectively. Fruit crude extract and root CH 2 Cl 2 fraction from A. reticulata also showed activity with MIC values of 50 μg/mL and 25 μg/mL, respectively. Crude extracts from the twig and stem bark of C. patens displayed inhibition at MIC values of 125 μg/mL and 100 μg/mL, respectively. Majority of active extracts showed no cell cytotoxicity, except the extract from C. patens with IC 50 ranging from 41.40 μg/mL to 93.78 μg/mL. The chemical investigation of the promising extracts revealed the presence of phenols, alkaloids, glycosides, triterpenes, and acetogenins. Conclusion The results achieved from this preliminary antimycobacterial drug discovery study supported the traditional claims of C. patens , A. reticulata , and G. suaveolens in the treatment of mycobacterial infections. Meanwhile, further fractionation is required to characterize the active ingredients.