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West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes encephalitis in humans and infects crocodiles, resulting in rashes and neurological signs. In Zambia, two distinct lineages of WNV have been detected in neighbouring areas: lineage 2 in mosquitoes and lineage 1a in farmed crocodiles. Considering the risk of direct or vector-mediated WNV transmission from crocodiles to mammals, it is necessary to elucidate the pathogenicity of WNV strains derived from crocodiles. In this study, WNV was successfully isolated from naturally infected farmed crocodiles (Croc110/2019/1/ZM, Croc110). We then investigated its proliferation and pathogenicity in mice in comparison with a WNV isolate from mosquitoes in Zambia (Zmq16) and two reference strains, including one highly pathogenic (NY99) and one low pathogenic (Eg101) strain. Although viral proliferation in Vero and mammalian neuronal cells was comparable among the strains, Croc110 exhibited low cell-to-cell transmission efficiency. In vivo , more than 70% of mice (C57BL/6) intracerebrally inoculated with Croc110 displayed neurological signs, and Croc110-infected mice exhibited similarly high mortality rates as NY99- and Zmq16-infected mice. Meanwhile, comparable virus growth was observed among the strains in the brain. However, the virulence of Croc110 was significantly lower than that of Zmq16 and NY99 following intradermal (ID) and intraperitoneal inoculation. Consistently, Croc110 displayed lower growth than Zmq16 and NY99 in the brain and peripheral tissues after ID inoculation. Our study revealed that the crocodile-derived WNV strain is less neuroinvasive in mice, and it exhibits distinct pathogenicity from the highly pathogenic mosquito-derived WNV strain circulating in Zambia.

Animal rabies is a potentially fatal infectious disease in mammals, especially dogs. Currently, the number of rabies cases in pet dogs is increasing in several regions of Thailand. However, no passive postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) has been developed to combat rabies infection in animals. As monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are promising biological therapies for postinfection, we developed a canine-neutralizing MAb against rabies virus (RABV) via the single-chain variable fragment (scFv) platform. Immunized phage-displaying scFv libraries were constructed from PBMCs via the pComb3XSS system. Diverse canine VHVLκ and VHVLλ libraries containing 2.4 × 10 8 and 1.3 × 10 6 clones, respectively, were constructed. Five unique clones that show binding affinity with the RABV glycoprotein were then selected, of which K9RABVscFv1 and K9RABVscFv16 showed rapid fluorescent foci inhibition test (RFFIT) neutralizing titers above the human protective level of 0.5 IU/ml. Finally, in silico docking predictions revealed that the residues on the CDRs of these neutralizing clones interact mainly with similar antigenic sites II and III on the RABV glycoprotein. These candidates may be used to develop complete anti-RABV MAbs as a novel PEP protocol in pet dogs and other animals., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Human-to-animal SARS-CoV-2 transmission was observed, including a veterinarian contracting COVID-19 through close contact with an infected cat, suggesting an atypical zoonotic transmission. This study investigated the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in cats during human outbreaks and elucidated the correlation between cat infections and human epidemics. A total of 1107 cat serum samples were collected and screened for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using a modified indirect ELISA human SARS-CoV-2 antibody detection kit. The samples were confirmed using a cPass™ neutralization test. The SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity rate was 22.67% (199/878), mirroring the trend observed in concomitant human case numbers. The waves of the epidemic and the provinces did not significantly impact ELISA-positive cats. Notably, Chon Buri exhibited a strong positive correlation (r = 0.99, p = 0.009) between positive cat sera and reported human case numbers. Additionally, the cPass™ neutralization test revealed a 3.99% (35/878) seropositivity rate. There were significant differences in numbers and proportions of positive cat sera between epidemic waves. In Samut Sakhon, a positive correlation (r = 1, p = 0.042) was noted between the proportion of positive cat sera and human prevalence. The findings emphasize the need for ongoing surveillance to comprehend SARS-CoV-2 dynamics in both human and feline populations.

Background and Aims: Asthma, a chronic disease affecting humans and animals, has recently become increasingly prevalent and steadily widespread. The alternative treatment of asthma using helminth infections or helminth-derived immunomodulatory molecules (IMs) has been evaluated and demonstrated significant amelioration of disease severity index in vitro and in vivo . Trichinella spiralis , a parasitic nematode and its IMs, elicits a potential to relieve asthma and other immune-related disorders. In this study, we investigated the immunomodulatory function of recombinant T. spiralis novel cystatin (rTsCstN) in ameliorating acute inflammatory asthma disorders in a murine model., Materials and Methods: Female BALB/c mice were sensitized using intraperitoneal injection of ovalbumin (OVA)/alum and subsequently challenged with intranasal administration of OVA alone or OVA + rTsCstN for 3 consecutive days, producing OVA-induced allergic asthma models. To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of rTsCstN, the inflammatory cells and cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and OVA-specific immunoglobulin E levels in serum were assessed. Histological alterations in the lung tissues were determined by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and eventually scored for the extent of inflammatory cell infiltration., Results: The asthmatic mouse models challenged with OVA + rTsCstN demonstrated a significant reduction of eosinophils (p < 0.01), macrophages (p < 0.05), and cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (p < 0.05) and interferon (IFN)-γ (p < 0.05) in BALF when compared with the mice challenged with OVA alone. However, the levels of interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10 remained unchanged. Histological examination revealed that mice administered OVA + rTsCstN were less likely to have inflammatory cell infiltration in their perivascular and peribronchial lung tissues than those administered OVA alone., Conclusion: Recombinant T. spiralis novel cystatin demonstrated immunomodulatory effects to reduce severe pathogenic alterations in asthma mouse models, encouraging a viable alternative treatment for asthma and other immunoregulatory disorders in humans and animals in the future., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Thammasonthijarern, et al.)

Background and Aim: Trypanosoma evansi is a blood and tissue protozoan parasite affecting domestic and wild animals. The T. evansi Thai strain, namely, T. evansi from dairy cattle number 953 (TEDC 953) strain, has been successfully isolated from dairy cattle and cultivated in vitro . The in vitro -cultivated parasite is useful for biological studies, evaluation of novel chemotherapeutic agents, and production of antigens for diagnostic tests. This study aimed to observe the histopathology and virulence of an in vitro -adapted T. evansi TEDC 953 strain in vivo ., Materials and Methods: The histopathology and virulence of the TEDC 953 strain were clarified in mice. Six mice were infected with 1 × 10 5 trypomastigotes of TEDC 953 strain intraperitoneally, and four mice were in the negative control. Parasitemia was monitored daily, and the mice were euthanized on 30 days post-infection (DPI). Internal organs were collected for histopathological examination using hematoxylin and eosin staining., Results: Histopathological lesions were found in the liver, lung, heart, kidney, spleen, and brain of the inoculated mice. The main histopathological feature was lymphoplasmacytic inflammation in parenchyma and perivascular areas of multiple organs, and the severity of histopathological changes was related to the presence of trypomastigotes in the regional vessels. Granulomatous inflammation was seen in meninges, pleura, renal capsule, renal pelvis, and spleen of some infected mice. Four mice died at 17, 24, 26, and 27 DPI with an average parasitemia of 4.05 × 10 11 trypomastigotes/mL. The average survival time was 23.5 DPI (mice = 4)., Conclusion: This study confirmed that the TEDC 953 strain is infectious and pathogenic in mice after the continuously cultivated in vitro . To replace the use of experimental animals, the in vitro -cultivated parasite can be used instead in further studies., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright: © Phongphaew, et al.)

Most old, intact male dogs usually have prostate disorders, especially benign prostatic hypertrophy and prostatitis with or without abscesses, and concurrent cystitis. The successful treatment of dogs with prostatitis concurrent with cystitis has relied on choosing an appropriate antimicrobial drug based on a bacterial culture and drug sensitivity testing. The objective of the study was to compare the prevalence of bacterial species and results of drug susceptibility testing of bacteria that were isolated from the prostatic fluids and urine samples that were collected from dogs with both prostatitis and cystitis. One hundred and sixty intact male dogs, who presented with both diseases, were recruited for the study. The disease diagnoses were based on clinical history notes, physical examinations, abdominal ultrasonography, prostatic fluid cytology, urinalysis and bacterial cultures from both prostatic fluid and urine samples. The bacterial culture results demonstrated that the major species that were detected in either the prostatic fluid or urine samples were Staphylococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp., Streptococcus spp., Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Staphylococcus spp. (26.5 %, 43/162) and Escherichia coli (26.1 %, 12/46) were the most prevalent species from the prostatic fluid and urine samples, respectively. Statistical tests revealed that there were no significantly different prevalence levels among the isolated bacteria between the prostatic fluid and urine samples. Imipenem and gentamicin were the most potent antimicrobial drugs tested against the bacterial isolates in the present study. However, the administration of imipenem to treat prostatitis and cystitis in dogs was of concern. Interestingly, there were no significant differences in the antimicrobial drug susceptibility trends between the prostatic fluid and urine samples. Based on these results, a urine sample might be considered as an optional sample for bacterial cultures and antimicrobial drug susceptibility testing when it is not possible to collect a prostatic fluid sample., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Background and Aim: The Sunda pangolin ( Manis javanica ) is on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species (critically endangered) due to high levels of illegal trafficking for its products. Thailand is one of the habitats of this species, and it has become the main hub for its illegal trafficking. Rehabilitating these captive pangolins and reintroducing them back to the wild are challenging due to the limited knowledge on their diet, management, and diseases. Hemoparasites, including Babesia spp., can cause important protozoal infections in both domestic and wild animals, resulting in the failure of rehabilitation and conservation programs. However, Babesia spp. has not been reported in pangolins. The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of Babesia spp. in the Sunda pangolin of Thailand., Materials and Methods: A total of 128 confiscated Sunda pangolins from across different regions in Thailand were investigated. These pangolins had been admitted to a regional Wildlife Quarantine Center for rehabilitation before release in the forest. Routine physical examinations were conducted on the animals. We collected blood samples from each pangolin for hematological analysis and to detect Babesia spp. using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the partial 18s rRN A gene., Results: Babesia -specific PCR detected 53 animals (41.4%) that were positive for Babesia spp. Blood smears were obtained from the positive samples and investigated under a light microscope to observe for trophozoites of Babesia spp. Examination of 40 PCR-positive and -negative samples found no significant differences between the hematological parameters of Babesia -positive and Babesia -negative samples. Eight PCR-positive samples were randomly selected and their DNA was sequenced. Seven and one of sequences match uncharacterized Babesia spp. with 100% and 99.2% similarity, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that our samples form a unique monophyletic clade along with other Babesia spp. detected in the wild. This clade is clearly separated from other Babesia spp. from small carnivores, ruminants, and rats., Conclusion: Our results provide evidence of infection of Sunda pangolins in Thailand by Babesia spp. These pangolins originated from different regions and had not lived together before blood collection. Thus, we suggest that the uncharacterized Babesia spp. found in this study constitute a new group of pangolin-specific Babesia spp. The prevalence of the uncharacterized Babesia spp. was not correlated to pangolin health. Further studies are required to characterize the genomes and phenotypes, including the morphology and pathogenicity of these protozoa. Such information will be helpful for the conservation and health management of the Sunda pangolin., (Copyright: © Yodsheewan, et al.)

West Nile virus (WNV) belongs to the Flaviviridae family and has emerged as a significant cause of viral encephalitis in birds and animals including humans. WNV replication directly induces neuronal injury, followed by neuronal cell death. We previously showed that accumulation of ubiquitinated protein aggregates was involved in neuronal cell death in the WNV-infected mouse brain. In this study, we attempted to elucidate the mechanisms of the accumulation of protein aggregates in the WNV-infected cells. To identify the viral factor inducing the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins, intracellular accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins was examined in the cells expressing the viral protein. Expression of capsid (C) protein induced the accumulation, while mutations at residues L51 and A52 in C protein abrogated the accumulation. Wild-type (WT) or mutant WNV in which mutations were introduced into the residues was inoculated into human neuroblastoma cells. The expression levels of LC3-II, an autophagy-related protein, and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an autophagy inducer, were reduced in the cells infected with WT WNV, while the reduction was not observed in the cells infected with WNV with the mutations in C protein. Similarly, ubiquitination and degradation of AMPK were only observed in the cells infected with WT WNV. In the cells expressing C protein, AMPK was co-precipitated with C protein and mutations in L51 and A52 reduced the interaction. Although the viral replication was not affected, the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in brain and neurological symptoms were attenuated in the mouse inoculated with WNV with the mutations in C protein as compared with that with WT WNV. Taken together, ubiquitination and degradation of AMPK by C protein resulted in the inhibition of autophagy and the accumulation of protein aggregates, which contributes to the development of neurological disease., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The Smacoviridae has recently been classified as a family of small circular single-stranded DNA viruses. An increasing number of smacovirus genomes have been identified exclusively in faecal matter of various vertebrate species and from insect body parts. However, the genetic diversity and host range of smacoviruses remains to be fully elucidated. Herein, we report the genetic characterization of eleven circular replication-associated protein (Rep) encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses detected in the faeces of Zambian non-human primates. Based on pairwise genome-wide and amino acid identities with reference smacovirus species, ten of the identified CRESS DNA viruses are assigned to the genera Porprismacovirus and Huchismacovirus of the family Smacoviridae, which bidirectionally encode two major open reading frames (ORFs): Rep and capsid protein (CP) characteristic of a type IV genome organization. The remaining unclassified CRESS DNA virus was related to smacoviruses but possessed a genome harbouring a unidirectionally oriented CP and Rep, assigned as a type V genome organization. Moreover, phylogenetic and recombination analyses provided evidence for recombination events encompassing the 3'-end of the Rep ORF in the unclassified CRESS DNA virus. Our findings increase the knowledge of the known genetic diversity of smacoviruses and highlight African non-human primates as carrier animals.

Mosquito-borne alphaviruses are disseminated globally and cause febrile illness in humans and animals. Since the prevalence and diversity of alphaviruses has not been previously investigated in Zambia, reverse transcription PCR was employed as a broad-spectrum approach for the detection of alphaviruses in mosquitoes. From 552 mosquito pools, a novel alphavirus, tentatively named Mwinilunga alphavirus (MWAV), was discovered from a single Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito pool. The full genome of MWAV was subsequently determined, and pairwise comparisons demonstrated that MWAV represented a new alphavirus species. Phylogenetic analyses and a linear discriminant analysis based on the dinucleotide ratios in various virus sequences indicated that MWAV is related to a mosquito-specific alphavirus distinct from other known mosquito-borne alphaviruses due to its inability to replicate in vertebrate cell lines. Further analyses of these novel alphaviruses will help to facilitate a greater understanding of the molecular determinants of host range restriction and the evolutionary relationships of alphaviruses., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Subviral particles (SVPs) self-assemble and are released from cells transfected with expression plasmids encoding flavivirus structural proteins. Flavivirus-like particles (VLPs), consisting of flavivirus structural proteins and a subgenomic replicon, can enter cells and cause single-round infections. Neither SVPs or VLPs possess complete viral RNA genomes, therefore are replication-incompetent systems; however, they retain the capacity to fuse and bud from target cells and follow the same maturation process as whole virions. SVPs and VLPs have been previously employed in studies analyzing entry and release steps of viral life cycles. In this study, we have developed quantitative methods for the detection of cellular entry and release of SVPs and VLPs by applying a luciferase complementation assay based on the high affinity interaction between the split NanoLuc luciferase protein, LgBiT and the small peptide, HiBiT. We introduced HiBiT into the structural protein of West Nile virus and generated SVPs and VLPs harboring HiBiT (SVP-HiBiT and VLP-HiBiT, respectively). As SVP-HiBiT emitted strong luminescence upon exposure to LgBiT and its substrate, the nascently budded SVP-HiBiT in the supernatant was readily quantified by luminometry. Similarly, the cellular entry of VLP-HiBiT generated luminescence when VLP-HiBiT was infected into LgBiT-expressing cells. These methods utilizing SVP-HiBiT and VLP-HiBiT will facilitate research into life cycles of flaviviruses, including WNV., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Valosin-containing protein (VCP) is classified as a member of the type II AAA + ATPase protein family. VCP functions in several cellular processes, including protein degradation, membrane fusion, vesicular trafficking and disassembly of stress granules. Moreover, VCP is considered to play a role in the replication of several viruses, albeit through different mechanisms. In the present study, we have investigated the role of VCP in West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Endogenous VCP expression was inhibited using either VCP inhibitors or by siRNA knockdown. It could be shown that the inhibition of endogenous VCP expression significantly inhibited WNV infection. The entry assay revealed that silencing of endogenous VCP caused a significant reduction in the expression levels of WNV-RNA compared to control siRNA-treated cells. This indicates that VCP may play a role in early steps either the binding or entry steps of the WNV life cycle. Using WNV virus like particles and WNV-DNA-based replicon, it could be demonstrated that perturbation of VCP expression decreased levels of newly synthesized WNV genomic RNA. These findings suggest that VCP is involved in early steps and during genome replication of the WNV life cycle., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

West Nile virus (WNV) particles assemble at and bud into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are secreted from infected cells through the secretory pathway. However, the host factor related to these steps is not fully understood. Rab proteins, belonging to the Ras superfamily, play essential roles in regulating many aspects of vesicular trafficking. In this study, we sought to determine which Rab proteins are involved in intracellular trafficking of nascent WNV particles. RNAi analysis revealed that Rab8b plays a role in WNV particle release. We found that Rab8 and WNV antigen were colocalized in WNV-infected human neuroblastoma cells, and that WNV infection enhanced Rab8 expression in the cells. In addition, the amount of WNV particles in the supernatant of Rab8b-deficient cells was significantly decreased compared with that of wild-type cells. We also demonstrated that WNV particles accumulated in the recycling endosomes in WNV-infected cells. In summary, these results suggest that Rab8b is involved in trafficking of WNV particles from recycling endosomes to the plasma membrane., (© 2016 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)