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The Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor is a Near Threatened species known to be highly gregarious and that can concentrate in large numbers at core foraging and breeding sites, yet is also known to disperse widely in search of suitable foraging habitat. The density of flamingos at occupied sites, together with frequent dispersal between foraging sites, poses significant challenges to obtaining reliable counts and associated population estimates. Our study tested the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) imagery and high-resolution satellite imagery for producing density estimates of Lesser Flamingos at the only known breeding site in South Africa (Kamfers Dam, Northern Cape Province). We implemented a supervised classification approach using multiple supervised classification algorithms, including xgbTree, randomForest, nnet and GBM. The four supervised classification models performed very well at classifying flamingos from both drone and satellite imagery, with classification accuracies ranging between 0.98 and 0.99. The inclusion of an additional predictor (other than RGB bands) yielded the highest variable importance score and greatly increased model accuracy and predictive performance. Estimates of adult flamingos from drone imagery acquired across nesting mudflats on 5 February (n = 1 320) and 14 February (n = 330) 2019 suggested a 75% decline in incubating adults. Furthermore, a total of 16 134 (15 973–16 295) flamingos were estimated from drone imagery on 1 March 2019, and 17 291 (17 118–17 290) flamingos from satellite imagery on 19 March 2019. The modelled size of the creche across dates suggested a loss of 234 birds (4.5%) during the period of assessment, with the highest count estimating 5 218 juveniles. Our study successfully implemented machine learning classifiers that were able to detect and derive highly accurate counts of Lesser Flamingos from both drone and satellite imagery. This use of machine learning could greatly improve the efficiency of monitoring and associated conservation efforts underway for the Lesser Flamingo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waterbirds in stochastic environments exhibit nomadism in order to cater for the unpredictable availability of water resources. Lesser flamingos Phoeniconaias minor have long been thought to be nomadic waterbirds. In southern Africa, conservation efforts for lesser flamingos are hampered by a lack of knowledge about their movement trajectories. To investigate their movement ecology in southern Africa, we fitted GPS–GSM transmitters to 12 adults and tracked their movements over four years, from March 2016 to February 2020. Net squared displacement (NSD) was used in nonlinear least squares models classifying trajectories as nomadic, migratory, mixed‐migratory, home range restricted or dispersal movement types. Data from eight of the 12 birds met the criteria for the NSD analysis. Model success was good; only 8 out of 120 (6.7%) movement type models failed to reach convergence. Goodness of fit statistics from the NSD models supported migratory and mixed migratory movement types (concordance criteria coefficient (CC) = 0.78) for more than half of the annual trajectories investigated (57.2%). Dispersal, home range‐restricted and nomadic movements best described 28.6, 9.5 and 4.8% of annual trajectories, respectively, but all resulted in a mean CC of < 0.4 and thus did not fit observed NSD patterns as well as the migratory movement types. We then used nonlinear mixed effects models to account for annual and individual differences in migration parameters. Variation in the timing and duration of all migrations were more important than variation in migration distance, indicating well‐established summer and winter 'ranges' and routes between Kamfers Dam (South Africa) and Sua Pan (Botswana). We propose that lesser flamingos in central southern Africa may be partial migrants, not true nomads, as most of their movements followed a regular, repeated pattern between two primary locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waterbirds in stochastic environments exhibit nomadism in order to cater for the unpredictable availability of water resources. Lesser flamingos Phoeniconaias minor have long been thought to be nomadic waterbirds. In southern Africa, conservation efforts for lesser flamingos are hampered by a lack of knowledge about their movement trajectories. To investigate their movement ecology in southern Africa, we fitted GPS--GSM transmitters to 12 adults and tracked their movements over four years, from March 2016 to February 2020. Net squared displacement (NSD) was used in nonlinear least squares models classifying trajectories as nomadic, migratory, mixed-migratory, home range restricted or dispersal movement types. Data from eight of the 12 birds met the criteria for the NSD analysis. Model success was good; only 8 out of 120 (6.7%) movement type models failed to reach convergence. Goodness of fit statistics from the NSD models supported migratory and mixed migratory movement types (concordance criteria coefficient (CC) = 0.78) for more than half of the annual trajectories investigated (57.2%). Dispersal, home range-restricted and nomadic movements best described 28.6, 9.5 and 4.8% of annual trajectories, respectively, but all resulted in a mean CC of < 0.4 and thus did not fit observed NSD patterns as well as the migratory movement types. We then used nonlinear mixed effects models to account for annual and individual differences in migration parameters. Variation in the timing and duration of all migrations were more important than variation in migration distance, indicating well-established summer and winter 'ranges' and routes between Kamfers Dam (South Africa) and Sua Pan (Botswana). We propose that lesser flamingos in central southern Africa may be partial migrants, not true nomads, as most of their movements followed a regular, repeated pattern between two primary locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decomposed granite is a material commonly used in zoos as a base for flamingo exhibits. In 2012, the artificial turf over the decomposed granite in the Fort Worth Zoo flamingo exhibit was removed and pressure washed, the granite was replaced, and the turf was then restretched in place. Approximately 8 months later, 3 lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) showed signs of lethargy and hematochezia. Results of physical examination revealed poor body condition in all birds, with variable hematologic abnormalities, including anemia, hypoproteinemia, and electrolyte disturbances. Radiographs of birds showed large amounts of radiopaque material in the ventriculus and dilated intestinal loops. Two birds died either during treatment or surgery, and 1 bird was euthanatized. Postmortem examination of all 3 birds revealed large amounts of fine, granite-like material in the ventriculus and intestines, severe congestion of intestinal mucosa, and obstruction of intestinal lumen by caseous plugs surrounded by fecal material. Microscopic evaluation of the material removed from the ventriculus showed birefringent crystals that corresponded to microscopic silica grains, consistent with the decomposed granite from the exhibit. Histologic examination of tissues showed marked chronic erosive colitis, mild erosive proventriculitis, and lesions in the muscular layer of the ventriculus. Subsequently, 82 remaining flamingos in the flock were radiographed. Results showed the same material in the ventriculus of most birds, but no intestinal obstructions were identified. Different treatment techniques were attempted unsuccessfully to remove the material from the flamingos that had the largest amount of decomposed granite in their gastrointestinal tracts. Ultimately, all birds were treated with oral gastrointestinal protectants, adsorbents, laxatives, and lubricants, along with antibiotics administered in drinking water. No further mortalities occurred once medical treatments were implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We determined hematologic parameters of five healthy and nine sick free-ranging Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) from Lake Nakuru, Kenya. Heterophilia and lymphopenia were evident in sick birds, with up to 7.5- fold higher heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio in sick birds compared to healthy birds. Leucopenia was present in a few sick birds. A higher than normal packed cell volume was observed in birds that had evidence of acute disease, whereas a lower than normal packed cell volume was seen in birds with evidence of prolonged sickness. Healthy birds had higher total white blood cell counts and lymphocyte counts and lower heterophil counts than zoo flamingos. Most sick birds were diagnosed with septicemia, occasionally with fibrinous exudation into the coelomic cavities. One bird had mycobacterial granulomas, one had a corynebacteriumassociated wing abscess, and one had a wing fracture. We provide hematologic data for freeranging Lesser Flamingos and compare the parameters of sick and healthy birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A wild-caught lesser flamingo ( Phoeniconaias minor) from the Fort Worth Zoo (Fort Worth, TX, USA) presented with moderate lameness that progressed to the inability to stand 2 days after restraint and handling. Results of blood tests showed severely elevated creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, confirming suspected capture myopathy. Intensive supportive therapy, consisting of intravenous fluids and muscle relaxants, along with physical rehabilitation therapy, nutritional support, and anxiolytics, were instituted to aid in relaxation and muscle regeneration. After 2 weeks of intensive therapy, the bird showed substantial improvement and could remain standing throughout the day after being assisted to a standing position. By day 23, the bird was able to stand independently and walk completely unassisted, with no discernible lameness. The bird has subsequently remained healthy since it was returned to the flock approximately 27 days after it was first presented for treatment. Although anecdotal communications of successful treatment of this condition in flamingos exist, this is the first report, to our knowledge, that describes in detail the successful treatment of capture myopathy in any flamingo species. Success in this case is attributed to the combination of early fluid and drug therapy, intensive physical rehabilitation therapy, and anxiolytics to counteract the hyperexcitable nature of this wild-caught bird. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The role of wild birds in the transmission and spread of mycoplasmas is not clear. Up to now different Mycoplasma species have been isolated from wild birds many of which are not considered pathogens sensu stricto for domestic flocks. This report describes the first isolation of Mycoplasma synoviae in a captive lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor) held in a zoo in Italy and the laboratory investigations performed to elucidate its origin. Results showed that the strain was similar to the MS-H vaccine strain using the vlhA methods although no vaccination with this product was used in the zoo. Case presentation: This paper describes investigations into a case in which 10 of 12 adult lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) died after having recently been moved from the Netherlands to a new zoo in Northern Italy. While most of the birds appeared to have died from the stress of movement and poor adaptation to their new environment, Mycoplasma synoviae, an important poultry pathogen in the layer and meat industry, was isolated for the first time from the trachea of one animal presenting catarrhal tracheitis and fibrinous airsacculitis. Genetic analysis of the conserved region of the vlhA was not able to differentiate the flamingo strain from the MS-H vaccine strain. However differences in the sequences of the obg gene of the flamingo and vaccine strain were detected. A test for temperature-sensitivity (ts) gave a ts- phenotype for the flamingo strain, in contrast to the ts+ status of the MS-H strain. Based on this information and knowing that the flamingos were not vaccinated against M. synoviae, it is highly likely that the flamingo was infected with a genetically similar wild strain by contact with infected birds. Conclusions: This case provides evidence for the potential role of international trade of ornamental birds as a possible route of introduction of new mycoplasma strains between countries, and moreover highlight that vlhA gene sequencing was not sufficient to discriminate the wild strain isolated from the flamingo from the MS-H vaccine strain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine genetic differentiation of Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, a colonial and vagrant waterbird confined to four populations in the Old World, in order to provide a first insight into geographic connections between the two major breeding populations. Sixty-nine flamingos, sampled from Lake Bogoria (Kenya) and Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat, India), were analysed by sequencing mitochondrial markers (cytb and ND2) and genotyping six nuclear loci. We globally found low levels of polymorphism, revealing congruent patterns of starburst radiation around the most frequent haplotypes. We estimated that average demographic expansion of the African and Indian populations was around 141 000 years ago. Analyses of nuclear DNA highlighted lack of population genetic structure and asymmetric gene flow, precluding genetic isolation between the breeding sites. Here, we showed that limited numbers of individuals (2-3 migrants per generation) may move between Kenya and Gujarat (and vice versa) providing genetic evidence that supports the observations of occasional birds along Indian Ocean and Arabian peninsula coastline countries and that the Lesser Flamingo population in the Rift Valley acts as a ‘centre of connec­tivity' between the remote populations. The Lesser Flamingo is considered Near Threatened, so this knowledge may be important for future management of conservation strategy plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study that validates two common methods for measuring lactate in American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseas). The study compares measurements to a reference analyzer of twenty-seven banked flamingo plasma samples to determine the methods. It correlates blood lactate concentration levels with the duration and difficulty of capture as a possible indicator of capture myopathy. It reveals that blood lactate concentration levels were positively correlated with the length of time of the capture. It also shows that no flamingos have demonstrated clinical signs of capture myopathy.

This study documents the mortality of flamingos due to collision with electric wires in the state of Gujarat, India. The wetlands of Gujarat were surveyed from 2002 to 2005 as a part of ecological studies on flamingos. Incidences of collision of flamingos with overhead electric wires were recorded at breeding and feeding sites. The numbers of victim birds were counted and high risk sites were identified based on reported incidences of collision and the period of inundation of the sites below electric lines. Of the 76 deaths recorded, Lesser Flamingos Phoeniconaias minor (46%) and Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus (54%) accounted almost equally. The effects of collision on the population of flamingos and the management options to minimize collision of flamingos and other water birds with electric lines in sensitive habitats are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake Bogoria, in the Rift Valley of Kenya is an extreme saline lake (conductivity 40–80 mS cm-1, alkalinity 1500 m equ l-1). It is hydrologically more stable than the other, endorheic lakes in Kenya, because it is deep – maximum depth at present just over 10 m in an area of 3000 ha – and so does not have periods when it is dry. It is ecologically simple, with only one species dominating the phytoplankton – the cyanobacterium `spirulina', Arthrospira fusiformis. Its biomass and productivity were very high – biomass between 38 and 365 μg l-1 chlorophyll `a' and 3.4–21 × 103 coils ml-1 and net production between 0.24 and 1 gm C m3 h, the latter in a narrow zone of less than a metre. There were no macro-zooplankton in the plankton and the only grazer of A. fusiformis was the lesser flamingo, Phoeniconaias minor, which occurred irregularly in very high concentrations (in excess of 1 × 106). Detritivory in the benthos was effected by a single chironomid species, Paratendipes sp., at a maximum density of 4 × 104 m-2. The mean daily emergence of adult chironomids was estimated to be 1 × 103 m-2, the maximum 3. There was no littoral plant community within the lake but 44 dicotyledonous and 31 monocotyledonous plant species in the drawn-down zone and adjacent to it. A diverse draw-down terrestrial invertebrate fauna, only superficially described here, processed the flamingo feathers and carcasses, with other detritus such as chironomid pupal exuviae and decaying A. fusiformis scum. About 50 bird species depended upon the chironomids, either as they emerged through the water column as flying adults or later on the shoreline as floating pupal exuvia and dead adults. The lake has high conservation value because of three bird species in particular – lesser flamingo, Cape teal and black-necked grebe. The former provides real economic value in a region otherwise impoverished, because of the spectacle of tens of thousands of flamingos set against the landscape of hot springs and fumaroles at the lake edge, which draws 15 000 visitors per annum. P. minor has experienced three periods during the past ten years when major mortalities have occurred, the last of which killed 700 birds day-1. This could have involved as many as 200 000 birds (about 1/5th of the maximum population at this lake) if mortality was at a constant rate for the nine months it was observed. Causes of mortality have been suggested as avian tuberculosis, poisoning from cyanobacterial toxins or from heavy metal contamination at Lake Nakuru, but it is still not yet clear what contribution each makes to the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]