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We detail the mathematical formulation of the line of "functional quantizer" modules developed by the Mathematics and Music Lab (MML) at Michigan Technological University, for the VCV Rack software modular synthesizer platform, which allow synthesizer players to tune oscillators to new musical scales based on mathematical functions. For example, we describe the recently-released MML Logarithmic Quantizer (LOG QNT) module that tunes synthesizer oscillators to the non-Pythagorean musical scale introduced by indie band The Apples in Stereo., Comment: 4 pages, published in Infinite Loop: an online journal for undergraduate research and applied computing projects (2024)

Although lattice Yang-Mills theory on finite subgraphs of $\mathbb Z^d$ is easy to rigorously define, the construction of a satisfactory continuum theory on $\mathbb R^d$ is a major open problem when $d \geq 3$. Such a theory should in some sense assign a Wilson loop expectation to each suitable finite collection $\mathcal L$ of loops in $\mathbb R^d$. One classical approach is to try to represent this expectation as a sum over surfaces with boundary $\mathcal L$. There are some formal/heuristic ways to make sense of this notion, but they typically yield an ill-defined difference of infinities. In this paper, we show how to make sense of Yang-Mills integrals as surface sums for $d=2$, where the continuum theory is more accessible. Applications include several new explicit calculations, a new combinatorial interpretation of the master field, and a new probabilistic proof of the Makeenko-Migdal equation., Comment: Appendix A has been added for the companion paper "Random surfaces and lattice Yang-Mills" by S. Cao, M. Park, and S. Sheffield

Let $\rho$ be compactly supported on $D \subset \mathbb R^2$. Endow $\mathbb R^2$ with the metric $e^{\rho}(dx_1^2 + dx_2^2)$. As $\delta \to 0$ the set of Brownian loops centered in $D$ with length at least $\delta$ has measure $$\frac{\text{area}(D)}{2\pi \delta} + \frac{1}{48\pi}(\rho,\rho)_{\nabla}+ o(1).$$ When $\rho$ is smooth, this follows from the classical Polyakov-Alvarez formula. We show that the above also holds if $\rho$ is not smooth, e.g. if $\rho$ is only Lipschitz. This fact can alternatively be expressed in terms of heat kernel traces, eigenvalue asymptotics, or zeta regularized determinants. Variants of this statement apply to more general non-smooth manifolds on which one considers all loops (not only those centered in a domain $D$). We also show that the $o(1)$ error is uniform for any family of $\rho$ satisfying certain conditions. This implies that if we weight a measure $\nu$ on this family by the ($\delta$-truncated) Brownian loop soup partition function, and take the vague $\delta \to 0$ limit, we obtain a measure whose Radon-Nikodym derivative with respect to $\nu$ is $\exp\bigl( \frac{1}{48\pi}(\rho,\rho)_{\nabla}\bigr)$. When the measure is a certain regularized Liouville quantum gravity measure, a companion work [APPS20] shows that this weighting has the effect of changing the so-called central charge of the surface.

We study the Loewner evolution whose driving function is $W_t = B_t^1 + i B_t^2$, where $(B^1,B^2)$ is a pair of Brownian motions with a given covariance matrix. This model can be thought of as a generalization of Schramm-Loewner evolution (SLE) with complex parameter values. We show that our Loewner evolutions behave very differently from ordinary SLE. For example, if neither $B^1$ nor $B^2$ is identically equal to zero, then the set of points disconnected from $\infty$ by the Loewner hull has non-empty interior at each time. We also show that our model exhibits three phases analogous to the phases of SLE: a phase where the hulls have zero Lebesgue measure, a phase where points are swallowed but not hit by the hulls, and a phase where the hulls are space-filling. The phase boundaries are expressed in terms of the signs of explicit integrals. These boundaries have a simple closed form when the correlation of the two Brownian motions is zero., Comment: 49 pages, 12 figures; to appear in AOP

Physics considerations suggest that a theory of Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) should exist for all values of matter central charge $\mathbf{c} \in (-\infty,25)$. Probabilists have rigorously defined LQG as a random metric measure space for $\mathbf{c} < 1$; however, they have only very recently begun to explore LQG in the $\mathbf{c} \in (1,25)$ phase. We define a random metric associated to LQG for all $\mathbf{c} < 25$ by a collection of axioms analogous to axioms stated in the $\mathbf{c} < 1$ setting. We show that such a metric exists for each $\mathbf{c}$ by considering an approximating metric known as Liouville first passage percolation. Ding and Gwynne proved that these approximating metrics are tight in a suitably chosen topology; we show that every subsequential limit satisfies our axioms. In particular, our result defines a metric associated to LQG in the critical case $\mathbf{c} =1$. The metrics we define for $\mathbf{c} \in (1,25)$ exhibit geometric behavior that sharply contrasts with the $\mathbf{c} < 1$ regime. We show that, for $\mathbf{c} \in (1,25)$, the metrics do not induce the Euclidean topology since they a.s. have a dense (measure zero) set of singular points, points at infinite distance from all other points. We use this fact to prove that a.s. the metric ball is not compact and its boundary has infinite Hausdorff dimension. Despite these differences, we demonstrate that many properties of LQG metrics for $\mathbf{c} < 1$ extend in some form to the entire range $(-\infty, 25)$. We show that the metrics are a.s. reverse H\"older continuous with respect to the Euclidean metric, are a.s. complete and geodesic away from the set of singular points, and satisfy the bounds for set-to-set distances that hold in the $\mathbf{c} < 1$ phase. Finally, we prove that the metrics satisfy a version of the (geometric) Knizhnik-Polyakov-Zamolodchikov (KPZ) formula., Comment: 61 pages, 4 figures

Recent works have shown that there is a canonical way to to assign a metric (distance function) to a Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) surface for any parameter $\gamma \in (0,2)$. We establish a strong confluence property for LQG geodesics, which generalizes a result proven by Angel, Kolesnik and Miermont for the Brownian map. Using this property, we also establish zero-one laws for the Hausdorff dimensions of geodesics, metric ball boundaries, and metric nets w.r.t. the Euclidean or LQG metric. In the case of a metric ball boundary, our result combined with earlier work of Gwynne (2020) gives a formula for the a.s. Hausdorff dimension for the boundary of the metric ball stopped when it hits a fixed point in terms of the Hausdorff dimension of the whole LQG surface. We also show that the Hausdorff dimension of the metric ball boundary is carried by points which are not on the boundary of any complementary connected component of the ball., Comment: 44 pages, 9 figures, to appear in PTRF

We explore the geometric meaning of the so-called zeta-regularized determinant of the Laplace-Beltrami operator on a compact surface, with or without boundary. We relate the $(-c/2)$-th power of the determinant of the Laplacian to the appropriately regularized partition function of a Brownian loop soup of intensity $c$ on the surface. This means that, in a certain sense, decorating a random surface by a Brownian loop soup of intensity $c$ corresponds to weighting the law of the surface by the $(-c/2)$-th power of the determinant of the Laplacian. Next, we introduce a method of regularizing a Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) surface (with some matter central charge parameter $\mathbf{c}$) to produce a smooth surface. And we show that weighting the law of this random surface by the $( -\mathbf{c}'/ 2)$-th power of the Laplacian determinant has precisely the effect of changing the matter central charge from $\mathbf{c}$ to $\mathbf{c} + \mathbf{c}'$. Taken together with the earlier results, this provides a way of interpreting an LQG surface of matter central charge $\mathbf{c}$ as a pure LQG surface decorated by a Brownian loop soup of intensity $\mathbf{c}$. Building on this idea, we present several open problems about random planar maps and their continuum analogs. Although the original construction of LQG is well-defined only for $\mathbf{c}\leq 1$, some of the constructions and questions also make sense when $\mathbf{c}>1$., Comment: 37 pages, 5 figures; minor changes

Let $\gamma\in (0,2)$, let $h$ be the planar Gaussian free field, and let $D_h$ be the associated $\gamma$-Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) metric. We prove that for any random Borel set $X \subset \mathbb{C}$ which is independent from $h$, the Hausdorff dimensions of $X$ with respect to the Euclidean metric and with respect to the $\gamma$-LQG metric $D_h$ are a.s. related by the (geometric) KPZ formula. As a corollary, we deduce that the Hausdorff dimension of the continuum $\gamma$-LQG metric is equal to the exponent $d_\gamma > 2$ studied by Ding and Gwynne (2018), which describes distances in discrete approximations of $\gamma$-LQG such as random planar maps. We also derive "worst-case" bounds relating the Euclidean and $\gamma$-LQG dimensions of $X$ when $X$ and $h$ are not necessarily independent, which answers a question posed by Aru (2015). Using these bounds, we obtain an upper bound for the Euclidean Hausdorff dimension of a $\gamma$-LQG geodesic which equals $1.312\dots$ when $\gamma = \sqrt{8/3}$; and an upper bound of $1.9428\dots$ for the Euclidean Hausdorff dimension of a connected component of the boundary of a $\sqrt{8/3}$-LQG metric ball. We use the axiomatic definition of the $\gamma$-LQG metric, so the paper can be understood by readers with minimal background knowledge beyond a basic level of familiarity with the Gaussian free field., Comment: 28 pages, 1 figure; final version, to appear in Transactions of the AMS

For $\gamma \in (0,2)$, we define a weak $\gamma$-Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) metric to be a function $h\mapsto D_h$ which takes in an instance of the planar Gaussian free field (GFF) and outputs a metric on the plane satisfying a certain list of natural axioms. We show that these axioms are satisfied for any subsequential limits of Liouville first passage percolation. Such subsequential limits were proven to exist by Ding-Dub\'edat-Dunlap-Falconet (2019). It is also known that these axioms are satisfied for the $\sqrt{8/3}$-LQG metric constructed by Miller and Sheffield (2013-2016). For any weak $\gamma$-LQG metric, we obtain moment bounds for diameters of sets as well as point-to-point, set-to-set, and point-to-set distances. We also show that any such metric is locally bi-H\"older continuous with respect to the Euclidean metric and compute the optimal H\"older exponents in both directions. Finally, we show that LQG geodesics cannot spend a long time near a straight line or the boundary of a metric ball. These results are used in subsequent work by Gwynne and Miller which proves that the weak $\gamma$-LQG metric is unique for each $\gamma \in (0,2)$, which in turn gives the uniqueness of the subsequential limit of Liouville first passage percolation. However, most of our results are new even in the special case when $\gamma=\sqrt{8/3}$., Comment: 57 pages, 5 figures; to appear in PTRF

For $\xi \geq 0$, Liouville first passage percolation (LFPP) is the random metric on $\varepsilon \mathbb Z^2$ obtained by weighting each vertex by $\varepsilon e^{\xi h_\varepsilon(z)}$, where $h_\varepsilon(z)$ is the average of the whole-plane Gaussian free field $h$ over the circle $\partial B_\varepsilon(z)$. Ding and Gwynne (2018) showed that for $\gamma \in (0,2)$, LFPP with parameter $\xi = \gamma/d_\gamma$ is related to $\gamma$-Liouville quantum gravity (LQG), where $d_\gamma$ is the $\gamma$-LQG dimension exponent. For $\xi > 2/d_2$, LFPP is instead expected to be related to LQG with central charge greater than 1. We prove several estimates for LFPP distances for general $\xi\geq 0$. For $\xi\leq 2/d_2$, this leads to new bounds for $d_\gamma$ which improve on the best previously known upper (resp.\ lower) bounds for $d_\gamma$ in the case when $\gamma > \sqrt{8/3}$ (resp.\ $\gamma \in (0.4981, \sqrt{8/3})$). These bounds are consistent with the Watabiki (1993) prediction for $d_\gamma$. However, for $\xi > 1/\sqrt 3$ (or equivalently for LQG with central charge larger than 17) our bounds are inconsistent with the analytic continuation of Watabiki's prediction to the $\xi >2/d_2$ regime. We also obtain an upper bound for the Euclidean dimension of LFPP geodesics., Comment: 12 pages, 2 figures; final version, to appear in ECP

There is a substantial literature concerning Liouville quantum gravity (LQG) in two dimensions with conformal matter field of central charge ${\mathbf{c}}_{\mathrm M}\in(-\infty,1]$. Via the DDK ansatz, LQG can equivalently be described as the random geometry obtained by exponentiating $\gamma$ times a variant of the planar Gaussian free field (GFF), where $\gamma\in(0,2]$ satisfies $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}=25-6(2/\gamma+\gamma/2)^2$. Physics considerations suggest that LQG should also make sense in the regime when $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}>1$. However, the behavior in this regime is rather mysterious in part because the corresponding value of $\gamma$ is complex, so analytic continuations of various formulas give complex answers which are difficult to interpret in a probabilistic setting. We introduce and study a discretization of LQG which makes sense for all values of $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}\in(-\infty,25)$. Our discretization consists of a random planar map, defined as the adjacency graph of a tiling of the plane by dyadic squares which all have approximately the same "LQG size" with respect to the GFF. We prove that several formulas for dimension-related quantities are still valid for $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}\in(1,25)$, with the caveat that the dimension is infinite when the formulas give a complex answer. In particular, we prove an extension of the (geometric) KPZ formula for $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}\in(1,25)$, which gives a finite quantum dimension iff the Euclidean dimension is at most $(25-\mathbf c_{\mathrm M})/12$. We also show that the graph distance between typical points with respect to our discrete model grows polynomially whereas the cardinality of a graph distance ball of radius $r$ grows faster than any power of $r$ (which suggests that the Hausdorff dimension of LQG is infinite for $\mathbf c_{\mathrm M}\in(1,25)$). We include a substantial list of open problems., Comment: 53 pages, 6 figures

Let $M$ be the infinite spanning-tree-weighted random planar map, which is the local limit of finite random planar maps sampled with probability proportional to the number of spanning trees they admit. We show that a.s. the $M$-graph-distance diameter of the external diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA) cluster on $M$ run for $m$ steps is of order $m^{2/d + o_m(1)}$, where $d$ is the metric ball volume growth exponent for $M$ (which was shown to exist by Ding-Gwynne, 2018). By known bounds for $d$, one has $0.55051\ldots \leq 2/d \leq 0.563315\ldots$. Along the way, we also prove that loop-erased random walk (LERW) on $M$ typically travels graph distance $m^{2/d + o_m(1)}$ in $m$ units of time and that the graph-distance diameter of a finite spanning-tree-weighted random planar map with $n$ edges, with or without boundary, is of order $n^{1/d+o_n(1)}$ except on an event with probability decaying faster than any negative power of $n$. Our proofs are based on a special relationship between DLA and LERW on spanning-tree-weighted random planar maps as well as estimates for distances in such maps which come from the theory of Liouville quantum gravity., Comment: 49 pages, 8 figures; to appear in AOP

We study the adjacency graph of bubbles---i.e., complementary connected components---of an SLE$_{\kappa}$ curve for $\kappa \in (4,8)$, with two such bubbles considered to be adjacent if their boundaries intersect. We show that this adjacency graph is a.s. connected for $\kappa \in (4,\kappa_0]$, where $\kappa_0 \approx 5.6158$ is defined explicitly. This gives a partial answer to a problem posed by Duplantier, Miller and Sheffield (2014). Our proof in fact yields a stronger connectivity result for $\kappa \in (4,\kappa_0]$, which says that there is a Markovian way of finding a path from any fixed bubble to $\infty$. We also show that there is a (non-explicit) $\kappa_1 \in (\kappa_0, 8)$ such that this stronger condition does not hold for $\kappa \in [\kappa_1,8)$. Our proofs are based on an encoding of SLE$_\kappa$ in terms of a pair of independent $\kappa/4$-stable processes, which allows us to reduce our problem to a problem about stable processes. In fact, due to this encoding, our results can be re-phrased as statements about the connectivity of the adjacency graph of loops when one glues together an independent pair of so-called $\kappa/4$-stable looptrees, as studied, e.g., by Curien and Kortchemski (2014). The above encoding comes from the theory of Liouville quantum gravity (LQG), but the paper can be read without any knowledge of LQG if one takes the encoding as a black box., Comment: 28 pages, 5 figures; final version, to appear in AOP

We show that random walk on a stationary random graph with positive anchored expansion and exponential volume growth has positive speed. We also show that two families of random triangulations of the hyperbolic plane, the hyperbolic Poisson Voronoi tessellation and the hyperbolic Poisson Delaunay triangulation, have 1-skeletons with positive anchored expansion. As a consequence, we show that the simple random walks on these graphs have positive speed. We include a section of open problems and conjectures on the topics of stationary geometric random graphs and the hyperbolic Poisson Voronoi tessellation., Comment: 33 pages, 2 figures. Updated to include corrections to Proposition 1.5 and Lemma 4.4