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Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive therapeutic modality based on the interaction between a photosensitive molecule called photosensitizer (PS) and visible light irradiation in the presence of oxygen molecule. Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), an efficient and widely used PS, is hampered in clinical PDT by its poor water-solubility and tendency to self-aggregate. These features are strongly related to the PS hydrophilic–lipophilic balance. In order to improve the chemical properties of PpIX, a series of amphiphilic PpIX derivatives endowed with PEG550 headgroups and hydrogenated or fluorinated tails was synthetized. Hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) and log p-values were computed for all of the prepared compounds. Their photochemical properties (spectroscopic characterization, photobleaching, and singlet oxygen quantum yield) were also evaluated followed by the in vitro studies of their cellular uptake, subcellular localization, and photocytotoxicity on three tumor cell lines (4T1, scc-U8, and WiDr cell lines). The results confirm the therapeutic potency of these new PpIX derivatives. Indeed, while all of the derivatives were perfectly water soluble, some of them exhibited an improved photodynamic effect compared to the parent PpIX.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive therapeutic modality based on the interaction between a photosensitive molecule called photosensitizer (PS) and visible light irradiation in the presence of oxygen molecule. Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX), an efficient and widely used PS, is hampered in clinical PDT by its poor water-solubility and tendency to self-aggregate. These features are strongly related to the PS hydrophilic-lipophilic balance. In order to improve the chemical properties of PpIX, a series of amphiphilic PpIX derivatives endowed with PEG

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Simple Summary While photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as an attractive treatment for certain cancer types, it still lacks cancer specificity, which limits therapeutic efficacy and damages normal tissues. The present study aimed to evaluate the targeting potential of a novel minibody that recognizes a cell surface receptor expressed on various cancer cell lines. The engineered minibody-photosensitizer conjugate (MS5-IR700) killed target cells in both cell monolayer and tumor spheroid cultures. Additionally, the conjugate induced immunogenic cell death. Hence, the developed minibody could be used as a photosensitizer carrier for -cancer cell-targeted PDT. Abstract Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment strategy that utilizes photosensitizers (PSs) and light of a specific wavelength to kill cancer cells. However, limited tumor specificity is still a drawback for the clinical application of PDT. To increase the therapeutic efficacy and specificity of PDT, a novel human minibody (MS5) that recognizes a cell surface receptor expressed on various cancer cells was labeled with the hydrophilic phthalocyanine PS IR700 to generate an MS5-IR700 conjugate that is activated by near-infrared (NIR) light. The phototoxicity of the conjugate was mainly tested against the PC3 prostate cancer cell line. The MS5-IR700 conjugate killed PC3 cells after NIR light irradiation as compared to untreated cells or cells treated with IR700 alone. Time-course analysis of cell viability revealed a high percentage of cell death during the first hour in PC3 cells exposed to the MS5-IR700 conjugate and NIR light irradiation. After irradiation, the MS5-IR700 conjugate-treated PC3 cells displayed cellular swelling, round shape, and rupture of the cell and nuclear membranes. In a co-culture model, the MS5-IR700 conjugate killed MS5-positive Ramos lymphoma cells specifically, while leaving MS5-negative cells unaffected. In line with the data obtained with the monolayer cultures, the MS5-IR700 conjugate also killed PC3 cancer cell spheroids. The treatment induced relocation of heat shock protein 70 and calreticulin to the cell surface, implying the induction of immunogenic cell death. Overall, the data suggest that the developed MS5-IR700 conjugate is a promising therapeutic agent that warrants further preclinical studies.

Extracorporeal photopheresis (ECP), a modality that exposes isolated leukocytes to the photosensitizer 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and ultraviolet-A (UV-A) light, is used to treat conditions such as cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and graft-versus-host disease. However, the current procedure of ECP has limited selectivity and efficiency, and produces only partial response in the majority of treated patients. Additionally, the treatment is expensive and time-consuming, so the improvement for this modality is needed. In this study, we used the concept of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a precursor of an endogenously synthesized photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) in combination with blue light to explore the possibility of targeting activated human blood T cells ex vivo. With various T-cell activation protocols, a high ALA-induced PpIX production took place in activated CD3+, CD4+CD25+, and CD8+ T cell populations with their subsequent killing after blue light exposure. By contrast, resting T cells were much less damaged by the treatment. The selective and effective killing effect on the activated cells was also seen after co-cultivating activated and resting T cells. Under our clinically relevant experimental conditions, ALA-PDT killed activated T cells more selectively and efficiently than 8-MOP/UV-A. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) were not affected by the treatment. Incubation of ALA-PDT damaged T cells with autologous DCs induced a downregulation of the co-stimulatory molecules CD80/CD86 and also upregulation of interleukin 10 (IL-10) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase expression, two immunosuppressive factors that may account for the generation of tolerogenic DCs. Overall, the data support the potential use of ALA-PDT strategy for improving ECP by selective and effective killing of activated T cells and induction of immune tolerance.

Extracorporeal photopheresis (ECP), an immunomodulatory therapy for the treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGvHD), exposes isolated white blood cells to photoactivatable 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) and UVA light to induce the apoptosis of T-cells and, hence, to modulate immune responses. However, 8-MOP-ECP kills diseased and healthy cells with no selectivity and has limited efficacy in many cases. The use of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and light (ALA-based photodynamic therapy) may be an alternative, as ex vivo investigations show that ALA-ECP kills T-cells from cGvHD patients more selectively and efficiently than those treated with 8-MOP-ECP. The purpose of this phase I-(II) study was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of ALA-ECP in cGvHD patients. The study included 82 treatments in five patients. One patient was discharged due to the progression of the haematological disease. No significant persistent changes in vital signs or laboratory values were detected. In total, 62 adverse events were reported. Two events were severe, 17 were moderate, and 43 were mild symptoms. None of the adverse events evaluated by the internal safety review committee were considered to be likely related to the study medication. The results indicate that ALA-ECP is safe and is mainly tolerated well by cGvHD patients.

// Sissel Hauge 1 , Christian Naucke 1 , Grete Hasvold 1 , Mrinal Joel 1 , Gro Elise Rodland 1 , Petras Juzenas 1 , Trond Stokke 1 , Randi G. Syljuasen 1 1 Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, N-0310, Norway Correspondence to: Randi G. Syljuasen, email: randi.syljuasen@rr-research.no Keywords: checkpoint kinase inhibitors, cancer treatment, replication stress, DNA damage, CDK activity Received: August 04, 2016 Accepted: December 15, 2016 Published: December 22, 2016 ABSTRACT Recent studies have shown synergistic cytotoxic effects of simultaneous Chk1- and Wee1-inhibition. However, the mechanisms behind this synergy are not known. Here, we present a flow cytometry-based screen for compounds that cause increased DNA damage in S-phase when combined with the Wee1-inhibitor MK1775. Strikingly, the Chk1-inhibitors AZD7762 and LY2603618 were among the top candidate hits of 1664 tested compounds, suggesting that the synergistic cytotoxic effects are due to increased S-phase DNA damage. Combined Wee1- and Chk1-inhibition caused a strong synergy in induction of S-phase DNA damage and reduction of clonogenic survival. To address the underlying mechanisms, we developed a novel assay measuring CDK-dependent phosphorylations in single S-phase cells. Surprisingly, while Wee1-inhibition alone induced less DNA damage compared to Chk1-inhibition, Wee1-inhibition caused a bigger increase in S-phase CDK-activity. However, the loading of replication initiation factor CDC45 was more increased after Chk1- than Wee1-inhibition and further increased by the combined treatment, and thus correlated well with DNA damage. Therefore, when Wee1 alone is inhibited, Chk1 suppresses CDC45 loading and thereby limits the extent of unscheduled replication initiation and subsequent S-phase DNA damage, despite very high CDK-activity. These results can explain why combined treatment with Wee1- and Chk1-inhibitors gives synergistic anti-cancer effects.

Radioligand therapy targeting the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is rapidly evolving as a promising treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The PSMA-targeting ligand p-SCN-Bn-TCMC-PSMA (NG001) labelled with 212Pb efficiently targets PSMA-positive cells in vitro and in vivo. The aim of this preclinical study was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of 212Pb-NG001 in multicellular tumour spheroid and mouse models of prostate cancer. The cytotoxic effect of 212Pb-NG001 was tested in human prostate C4-2 spheroids. Biodistribution at various time points and therapeutic effects of different activities of the radioligand were investigated in male athymic nude mice bearing C4-2 tumours, while long-term toxicity was studied in immunocompetent BALB/c mice. The radioligand induced a selective cytotoxic effect in spheroids at activity concentrations of 3–10 kBq/mL. In mice, the radioligand accumulated rapidly in tumours and was retained over 24 h, while it rapidly cleared from nontargeted tissues. Treatment with 0.25, 0.30 or 0.40 MBq of 212Pb-NG001 significantly inhibited tumour growth and improved median survival with therapeutic indexes of 1.5, 2.3 and 2.7, respectively. In BALB/c mice, no signs of long-term radiation toxicity were observed at activities of 0.05 and 0.33 MBq. The obtained results warrant clinical studies to evaluate the biodistribution, therapeutic efficacy and toxicity of 212Pb-NG001.

Protein kinase B (Akt), similar to many other protein kinases, is at the crossroads of cell death and survival, playing a pivotal role in multiple interconnected cell signaling mechanisms implicated in cell metabolism, growth and division, apoptosis suppression and angiogenesis. Akt protein kinase displays important metabolic effects, among which are glucose uptake in muscle and fat cells or the suppression of neuronal cell death. Disruptions in the Akt-regulated pathways are associated with cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular and neurological diseases. The regulation of the Akt signaling pathway renders Akt a valuable therapeutic target. The discovery process of Akt inhibitors using various strategies has led to the identification of inhibitors with great selectivity, low side-effects and toxicity. The usefulness of Akt emerges beyond cancer therapy and extends to other major diseases, such as diabetes, heart diseases, or neurodegeneration. This review presents key features of Akt structure and functions, and presents the progress of Akt inhibitors in regards to drug development, and their preclinical and clinical activity in regards to therapeutic efficacy and safety for patients.

Nanocarriers based on polymers, metals and lipids have been extensively developed for cancer therapy and diagnosis due to their ability to enhance drug accumulation in cancer cells and decrease undesired drug toxicity in healthy tissues. Overcoming multidrug resistance by designing proper drug nanocarriers will improve outcome of existing oncologic treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In this article the relation between physicochemical properties and capacity of a nanosystem to deliver therapeutic agents into pathological sites is discussed. Most promising examples of drug delivery systems are reviewed, and, in particular, the design of a carbohydrate based matrix with entrapped gold nanoparticles is highlighted.

Nanoparticulates responsive to X-rays offer increased efficacy of radiation therapy. However, successful demonstrations of such nanoparticle use are limited so far due to lack of significant radiosensitizing effects or poor nanoparticle stability in a biological system. Zinc oxide (ZnO) is the most promising biocompatible material for medicinal applications. In this paper, we report preparation and characterization of scintillating ZnO/SiO2 core-shell nanoparticles. The ZnO/SiO2 nanoparticles absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation (below 360nm) and emit green fluorescence (400-750nm, maximum 550nm). Under X-ray irradiation (200kVp), the nanoparticles scintillate emitting luminescence in the region 350-700nm (maximum 420nm). The synthesized ZnO/SiO2 nanoparticles are stable in a biologically relevant environment (water and cell growth medium). The potential of the ZnO/SiO2 nanoparticles for radiosensitization is demonstrated in human prostate adenocarcinoma cell lines (LNCaP and Du145). The nanoparticles enhance radiation-induced reduction in cell survival about 2-fold for LNCaP and 1.5-fold for Du145 cells. Radiosensitizing effect can be attributed to X-ray-induced radiocatalysis by the nanoparticles.

Background: Proteasome inhibition is a current therapeutic strategy used in the treatment of multiple myeloma. Drugs controlling proteasome activity are ideally suited for unidirectional manipulation of cellular pathways such as apoptosis. The first proteasome inhibitor approved in clinics was bortezomib. This drug is currently used in combination with other anticancer agents. Objectives: In this study, the enhancement of bortezomib activity was evaluated using gold nanoparticles coated with poly(ethylene glycol). The uptake mechanism of the gold nanoparticles in pancreatic cell lines, S2-013 and hTERT-HPNE, was assessed by laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). Results: Pancreatic cancer cells internalized the nanoparticles together with the drug in few minutes through the formation of endocytic vesicles. This rapid uptake leads to an increase in the concentration and diffusion of bortezomib in the cytoplasm yielding an increased toxicity on the cells when compared to the drug alone. Conclusion: Gold nanoparticles can be used as effective delivery systems to increasing the permeation and retention of drugs in cancer cells.

In this study we report the effect of classical CdSe/ZnS quantum dots and novel spherical carbon dots on generation of singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) in aqueous solutions in vitro. Free radicals were initiated either chemically using 2,2'-azodiisobutyramidine dihydrochloride (AAPH) or by radiation with a blue light source emitting 390-470 nm (peak 420 nm). Two reagents, dihydrorhodamine 123 (Dhr123) and singlet oxygen sensor green (SOSG), were used as radical probes. Quantum dots and carbon dots inhibited oxidation of the radical probes under decomposition of AAPH. However, when subjected to the blue light both the quantum dots and carbon dots induced oxidation of Dhr123 to a greater extent than SOSG in water. Generation of singlet oxygen was remarkably enhanced in deuterium oxide solutions while oxidation of Dhr123 remained unchanged. For comparison, traditional photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX mainly induced oxidation of SOSG in water. In conclusion, upon external radiation carbon dots or quantum dots generate reactive oxygen species acting as prooxidants. Carbon dots or quantum dots also scavenge free radicals that are generated chemically by an azo compound. Such dual properties of these nanoparticles can be used for photodynamic and photocatalytic or antioxidant applications.

Simona Steponkiene1-3, Simona Kavaliauskiene1, Rasa Purviniene4, Ricardas Rotomskis3,5, Petras Juzenas11Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Radiumhospital, Oslo, Norway; 2Faculty of Natural Sciences, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania; 3Biomedical Physics Laboratory of Oncology Institute, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania; 4Immunology Laboratory of Oncology Institute, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania; 5Biophotonics Laboratory, Laser Research Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, LithuaniaBackground: In novel treatment approaches, therapeutics should be designed to target cancer stem cells (CSCs). Quantum dots (QDs) are a promising new tool in fighting against cancer. However, little is known about accumulation and cytotoxicity of QDs in CSCs.Methods: Accumulation and cytotoxicity of CdTe-MPA (mercaptopropionic acid) QDs in CSCs were assessed using flow cytometry and fluorescence-activated cell sorting techniques as well as a colorimetric cell viability assay.Results: We investigated the expression of two cell surface-associated glycoproteins, CD44 and CD133, in four different cancer cell lines (glioblastoma, melanoma, pancreatic, and prostate adenocarcinoma). Only the melanoma cells were positive to both markers of CD44 and CD133, whereas the other cells were only CD44-positive. The QDs accumulated to a similar extent in all subpopulations of the melanoma cells. The phenotypical response after QD treatment was compared with the response after ionizing radiation treatment. The percentage of the CD44high-CD133high subpopulation decreased from 72% to 55%–58% for both treatments. The stem-like subpopulation CD44highCD133low/- increased from 26%–28% in the untreated melanoma cells to 36%–40% for both treatments.Conclusion: Treatment of melanoma cells with QDs results in an increase of stem-like cell subpopulations. The changes in phenotype distribution of the melanoma cells after the treatment with QDs are comparable with the changes after ionizing radiation.Keywords: prominin-1, CD44, glycoproteins, flow cytometry, FACS, nanoparticles

Summary Background Measurements of tissue oxygenation and blood supply are of vital importance during photodynamic therapy. The aim of this study was to measure photosensitization responses in healthy mouse skin using non-invasive reflectance spectroscopy and fluorescein angiography. Methods Healthy mouse skin was treated topically with hexylaminolevulinate (HAL) for 3 h and then exposed to red light (632 nm). Results Non-invasive reflectance spectroscopy showed that the fraction of oxygenized haemoglobin decreased considerably after treatment with HAL and red light. This indicates reduced tissue oxygenation. Fluorescein angiography showed no vasoconstriction in the mouse skin after short (3 h) treatment with HAL and light, indicating that the oxygen concentration was high enough to give a photodynamic effect consistent with the skin damage (scar formation) observed for a few days after the treatment. However, longer treatment with HAL (17 h) resulted in complete vasoconstriction with oxygen depletion and no skin damage in the centre, while a circular (rim) wound was seen around the light exposed area. Skin damage was larger for the lowest fluence rate (20 mW/cm2) than for the highest one (100 mW/cm2) applied. Conclusion Skin treatment with topical HAL and red light in fluencies and fluence rates as applied here does not result in complete vasoconstriction. Haemoglobin oxygenation monitored by reflectance spectroscopy can be used as a rough measure of the resulting photodynamic response. However, haemoglobin oxygenation alone is not a complete predictive factor since reflectance spectroscopy did not reveal any differences in the status of haemoglobin oxygenation for different fluence rates.

Summary Background 5-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) or its methyl ester mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) is the most widely practiced form of PDT in dermatology. One of the advantages of topical PDT is that undesirable photosensitization lasts only for 24–48 h. However, patients are still sensitive in the areas where the cream has been applied, and are advised to avoid exposure to the sun and other light sources for at least 40 h after ALA-PDT. Therefore, the main aim of this work is to improve post-treatment procedures for increasing patient's comfort. The present study was carried out to investigate clearance of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) in the presence of metal ions in the cream applied on healthy skin of mice in vivo. Methods The photosensitizer PpIX was induced in normal mouse skin by topical application of ALA. Fluorescence spectroscopy was used to study porphyrin kinetics. Results Topical application of ferrous, cobalt or zinc sulphate significantly diminished the fluorescence of PpIX in mouse skin. These results show that the clearance kinetics of PpIX observed after exogenous application of ALA are determined by the conversion of PpIX into haem, and not by the clearance of PpIX from the body. Conclusions Application of a vehicle containing ferrous or cobalt sulphate after PDT might be an approach in clinical practice for the reduction of cutaneous photosensitivity and elimination of undesirable photoreactions in skin and lesions.

Medicinal applications of luminescent quantum dots (QDs) are of growing interest. In spite of the fact that their fabrication and imaging functions have been extensively investigated during the last decade, very little is known on curative potential of the QDs. In this study, we focus on cytotoxicity and phototoxicity of red-absorbing (

A novel 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-containing microparticulate system was produced recently, based on incorporation of ALA into particles prepared from a suppository base that maintains drug stability during storage and melts at skin temperature to release its drug payload. The novel particulate system was applied to the skin of living animals, followed by study of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) production. The effect of formulating the microparticles in different vehicles was investigated and also the phototoxicity of the PpIX produced using a model tumour. Particles formulated in propylene glycol gels (10% w/w ALA loading) generated the highest peak PpIX fluorescence levels in normal mouse skin. Peak PpIX levels induced in skin overlying subcutaneously implanted WiDr tumours were significantly lower than in normal skin for both the 10% w/w ALA microparticles alone and the 10% w/w ALA microparticles in propylene glycol gels during continuous 12h applications. Tumours not treated with photodynamic therapy continued to grow over the 17 days of the anti-tumour study. However, those treated with 12h applications of either the 10% w/w ALA microparticles alone or the 10% w/w ALA microparticles in propylene glycol gel followed by a single laser irradiation showed no growth. The gel formulation performed slightly better once again, reducing the tumour growth rate by approximately 105%, compared with the 89% reduction achieved using particles alone. Following the promising results obtained in this study, work is now going on to prepare particle-loaded gels under GMP conditions with the aim of initiating an exploratory clinical trial. Copyright r 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Semiconductor quantum dots and nanoparticles composed of metals, lipids or polymers have emerged with promising applications for early detection and therapy of cancer. Quantum dots with unique optical properties are commonly composed of cadmium contained semiconductors. Cadmium is potentially hazardous, and toxicity of such quantum dots to living cells, and humans, is not yet systematically investigated. Therefore, search for less toxic materials with similar targeting and optical properties is of further interest. Whereas, the investigation of luminescence nanoparticles as light sources for cancer therapy is very interesting. Despite advances in neurosurgery and radiotherapy the prognosis for patients with malignant gliomas has changed little for the last decades. Cancer treatment requires high accuracy in delivering ionizing radiation to reduce toxicity to surrounding tissues. Recently some research has been focused in developing photosensitizing quantum dots for production of radicals upon absorption of visible light. In spite of the fact that visible light is safe, this approach is suitable to treat only superficial tumours. Ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays) penetrate much deeper thus offering a big advantage in treating patients with tumours in internal organs. Such concept of using quantum dots and nanoparticles to yield electrons and radicals in photodynamic and radiation therapies as well their combination is reviewed in this article.

So far most of the work on nanoparticles and quantum dots has been focused on methods of production and applications in fluorescence imaging. The possibility to use quantum dots as photosensitizers (nanosensitizers) remains unexplored: Can these nanocrystals generate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) in biological environments? A potential possibility of using quantum dots simultaneously with red light for photodynamic therapy has been demonstrated in this study in aqueous solutions, cultured cells and skin of mice. Dihydrorhodamine 123 (DHR) had been chosen as a radical probe. High production of Rh123 (oxidation product of DHR) confirms radical generation of nitrogen oxides (NOX). One of them, peroxynitrite (ONOO−), is a product of the reaction of nitric oxide (NO) with superoxide (O−2) being evidence for that the latter anion can also be generated by quantum dots and red light. Lack of photooxidation of 9,10-dimethylanthracene (DMA) and the Singlet Oxygen Sensor Green (SOSG) indicates that singlet oxygen may not be generated by quantum dots under the present conditions. Quantum dots can also be used in photochemical internalization: Exposure of cancer cells incubated with quantum dots in vitro to blue light leads to lysosomal rupture and to increase of the fluorescence of the quantum dots (photoactivation). Quantum dots composed of CdSe with ZnS shell were more effective to oxidize DHR than quantum dots composed of non-heavy metals InGaP with ZnS shell.

5-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is a natural precursor of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) and heme in cells. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) utilizes a metabolic imbalance in cancer cells, leading to increased PpIX generation from exogenous ALA. Due to chemical instability of ALA in therapeutic concentrations at pH values larger than 5.0 and at high temperatures, it looses its activity by spontaneous dimerization to 2,5-dicarboxyethyl-3,6-dihydropyrazine (DHPY). ALA esters are now supplementing ALA in PDT, but little is known about their stability. We have studied the stability of ALA and its methyl ester (MAL) stored under different conditions (temperatures, pH values) by measuring their ability to generate PpIX. 100mM solutions of both compounds were found to be stable at pH 4 and at 4 degrees C. However, at pH 5.5 they lost almost 10% of the initial activity during 5days of storage at 4 degrees C. The fastest decay of ALA and MAL was seen at pH 7.4 and at 37 degrees C, and followed first order kinetics. At pH 7.4 and at 4 degrees C MAL lost its PpIX producing ability more slowly than at 37 degrees C. Our work shows that solutions should be prepared immediately before use and stored at low temperatures. The pH of stock solutions should not exceed 5.

Significant amounts of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) are formed after 6 min of topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and its hexylester derivative, whereas PpIX is formed after 10 min of topical application of ALA-methylester derivative in normal mouse skin at 37 degrees C. Lowering the skin temperature to 28-32 degrees C by the administration of the anesthetic Hypnorm-Dormicum reduces the PpIX fluorescence by a factor of 2-3. Practically no PpIX was formed as long as the skin temperature was kept at 12-18 degrees C. At around 30 degrees C PpIX fluorescence appears later after application of ALA-ester derivatives (14-20 min) than after application of ALA (8 min), indicating differences in their bioavailability (delayed penetration through the stratum corneum, cellular uptake, conversion to ALA, PpIX production) in mouse skin in vivo. The difference in lag time in the PpIX formation after application of ALA and ALA-esters may be partly related to deesterification of the ALA-ester molecules. The temperature dependence of PpIX production may be used for improvement of photodynamic therapy with ALA and ALA-ester derivatives, where accumulation of PpIX can be selectively enhanced by increasing the temperature of the target tissue.

Targeted cancer therapies are used to inhibit the growth, progression, and metastasis of the tumor by interfering with specific molecular targets and are currently the focus of anticancer drug development. Protein kinase B, also known as Akt, plays a central role in many types of cancer and has been validated as a therapeutic target nearly two decades ago. This review summarizes the intracellular functions of Akt as a pivotal point of converging signaling pathways involved in cell growth, proliferation, apoptotis and neo-angiogenesis, and focuses on the drug design strategies to develop potent anticancer agents targeting Akt. The discovery process of Akt inhibitors has evolved from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-competitive agents to alternative approaches employing allosteric sites in order to overcome the high degree of structural similarity between Akt isoforms in the catalytic domain, and considerable structural analogy to the AGC kinase family. This process has led to the discovery of inhibitors with greater specificity, reduced side-effects and lower toxicity. A second generation of Akt has inhibitors emerged by incorporating a chemically reactive Michael acceptor template to target the nucleophile cysteines in the catalytic activation loop. The review outlines the development of several promising drug candidates emphasizing the importance of each chemical scaffold. We explore the pipeline of Akt inhibitors and their preclinical and clinical examination status, presenting the potential clinical application of these agents as a monotherapy or in combination with ionizing radiation, other targeted therapies, or chemotherapy.

Summary Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a medical treatment by which a combination of a photosensitising drug and visible light cause the destruction of selected cells. Thick lesions, such as nodular basal cell carcinomas (BCCs), or lesions with overlying keratinous debris, are reported as being difficult to eradicate using 5-aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy (ALA-PDT). Such treatment failures have been attributed to the shallow penetration of water-soluble drugs like ALA. In addition, the current scarcity of sophisticated drug delivery research centered on PDT applications has meant that accurate comparison of similar clinical studies is difficult. This paper investigates, for the first time, novel drug delivery systems for controlled drug delivery of methyl-ALA (M-ALA). Pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) and bioadhesive patches containing defined M-ALA loadings and a standard cream containing equivalent amounts of drug were applied to the skin of mice for defined periods of time and the fluorescence of the protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced measured over 24 h. Of major importance, the PSA patches containing low drug loadings induced high PpIX levels, which were limited to the site of application, after only 1 h applications. Such systems have the potential to improve selectivity of PpIX accumulation, increase simplicity of treatment and, due to the low drug loadings required, reduce costs of clinical PDT. PSA patches would be most suitable for application to areas of dry skin, while bioadhesive patches would be suitable for moist areas, such as the mouth or lower female reproductive tract and have been shown here to induce significant PpIX production at the site of application after 4 h applications of patches containing high drug loadings.

Summary Background 5-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) and its ester derivatives are used in photodynamic therapy. Despite extensive investigations, the differences in biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced by ALA and its derivatives are still not well understood, notably for humans. Objectives To study porphyrin accumulation after topical application of ALA and two of its ester derivatives in normal human skin. Methods Creams containing 0·2%, 2% and 20% (w/w) of ALA, methyl 5-aminolaevulinate (MAL) and hexyl 5-aminolaevulinate (HAL) were applied on normal human skin of six volunteers. The amount and distribution of porphyrins formed in the skin was investigated noninvasively by means of fluorescence spectroscopy. Results Fluorescence emission and excitation spectra exhibited similar spectral shapes for the all drugs, indicating that mainly PpIX was formed. Low concentrations (0·2% and 2%) of MAL induced considerably less PpIX in normal human skin than similar concentrations of ALA and HAL. A high concentration (20%) of ALA gave higher PpIX fluorescence in normal human skin than was found for MAL and HAL. Conclusions The concentrations inducing half of the maximal PpIX fluorescence are around 2% for ALA, 8% for MAL and 1% for HAL.

Cell survival was investigated after exposing cells in vitro to different temperatures before or after photodynamic therapy with 5-aminolevulinic acid. The photodynamic process was found to be temperature dependent. Cells exposed for 1h to 41 degrees C before light exposure or to 7 degrees C after light exposure showed decreased survival. Furthermore, the photobleaching rate of protoporphyrin IX in the cells was found to increase with increasing temperature during the light exposure. Thus, the photodynamic effect with 5-aminolevulinic acid may be enhanced by heating the tumour area before, and by cooling it immediately after the treatment.

This paper illustrates that fluorescence spectroscopy and imaging can be used to measure the extent and distribution of lipid oxidation in meat. Minced turkey thighs and pork semimembranosus muscles were stored for 7 and 12 days at 4°C in high oxygen (O(2)) modified atmosphere packages and vacuum. Turkey meat packed in high O(2) atmosphere was oxidised already after 7 days of storage. The sensory rancid odour score was 4.7 (on a scale from 1 to 9) and the TBARS value was 1.86mg MDA/kg. There was also an increase in fluorescence emission intensity in the 410-550nm region, which arises from lipid oxidation products. The combination of unsaturated fatty acids and access to O(2) resulted in lipid oxidation gradients in the turkey meat samples, and these gradients were clearly visualised by fluorescence images. In comparison, pork meat was more stable against lipid oxidation, with TBARS values0.2mg MDA/kg and no development of fluorescent lipid oxidation products was detected. The fluorescence spectra measured in the present experiment suggest that turkey thighs and pork semimembranosus muscle in addition to protoporphyrin also have a natural content of Zn protoporphyrin. The porphyrin content was higher in pork meat than in turkey meat. It increased during storage time when the meat was packed in vacuum, and it decreased with O(2) availability. The distribution of porphyrins in the meat was visualised by fluorescence imaging.

Formation of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) after topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) and its hexylester derivative (ALA-Hex) was studied on healthy human skin. Temperature, density of hai ...

The influence of skin permeation enhancers, such as dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) and 1-[2-(decylthio)ethyl]azacyclopentan-2-one (HPE-101), LabrafacCC, Labrafil, Labrasol and Transcutol in a concentration of 10% (wt./wt.) on the formation of porphyrins in normal mouse skin from topical application of creams with methyl 5-aminolevulinate (MAL) was studied. The concentration of porphyrins in the mouse skin was determined by direct fluorescence measurements. The results show that studied permeation enhancers increase the formation of porphyrins, and therefore also the skin penetration 2% MAL whereas for 10% and 20% (wt./wt.) MAL concentrations only DMSO, HPE-101 and LabrafacCC increased the porphyrin formation. At all studied MAL concentrations DMSO gave the largest enhancing effect, similarly to that of HPE-101. This suggests that in 2–20% MAL creams HPE-101 may be substituted by LabrafacCC to reduce skin irritation induced by HPE-101 without impairing the porphyrin formation. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this work, the effect of 10% of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), 1-[2-(decylthio)ethyl]azacyclopentan-2-one (HPE-101) and Labrafac(®)CC (a mixture of caprylic and capric acid triglycerides) on porphyrin formation in mouse skin during topical application of methyl 5-aminolevulinate (MAL) was studied. The porphyrin level in mouse skin was determined by measuring directly fluorescence and by extraction method. The porphyrin fluorescence kinetics during continuous application of MAL in creams in concentrations 2, 10 and 20% (wt./wt.) for up to 7h showed that in this concentration range the kinetics of porphyrin production in the site of application does not depend significantly on the MAL concentration. After 24h of application of all studied creams the porphyrin fluorescence in the area of treatment was dramatically reduced to be about two-fold higher than the skin autofluorescence, suggesting a significant decrease of the porphyrin concentration in these sites, although in all cases traces of porphyrins were found. It was found by extraction method that a 10% MAL cream with 10% DMSO for 4h increased the concentration of porphyrin about four-fold compared with 10% MAL cream alone. The presence of 10% HPE-101 or 10% Labrafac(®)CC in the 10% MAL cream increased the porphyrin concentration in the area of application about 2.5- and 2-fold, respectively, as compared with MAL cream without enhancers. No statistically significant difference was found between the effects of the creams containing 10% MAL with 10% HPE-101 or 10% Labrafac(®)CC. The results obtained after 24h of mouse skin treatment with the same creams showed a large decrease of porphyrin formation in comparison with results found after 4h. All porphyrin concentrations measured after this time of MAL creams application were similar. Skin erythema was observed using MAL cream with DMSO and HPE-101, but not with Labrafac(®)CC. Our work suggests that the new penetration enhancer Labrafac(®)CC in creams with MAL may be used to increase the penetration of MAL through the mouse skin and at the same time increase production of porphyrin in the skin. This may reduce skin erythema, which is induced by DMSO and HPE-101.

Oxygen is a ubiquitous element and a vitally important substance for life on the Earth, and especially for human life. Living organisms need oxygen for most, if not all, of their cellular functions. On the other hand, oxygen can produce metabolites that are toxic and potentially lethal to the same cells. Being reactive and chemically unstable reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the most important metabolites that initiate reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions under physiological conditions. Oxygen in its excited singlet state (1O2) is probably the most important intermediate in such reactions. Since the discovery of oxygen by Joseph Priestley in 1775 it has been recognized that oxygen can be both beneficial and harmful to life.

Although 5-aminolevulinic acid, ALA, and its derivatives, have been widely studied and applied in clinical photodynamic therapy (PDT), there is still a lack of reliable and non-invasive methods and technologies to evaluate physiological parameters of relevance for the therapy, such as erythema, melanogenesis, and oxygen level. We have investigated the kinetics of these parameters in human skin in vivo during and after PDT with the hexyl ester of ALA, ALA-Hex. Furthermore, the depth of photosensitizer (protoporphyrin IX, PpIX) production after different application times was investigated. It was found that the depth increased with increasing application time of ALA-Hex. We also investigated the depth of PpIX before and after light exposure causing 50% photobleaching at 407 nm. The PpIX localized in superficial layers of the normal tissue was removed during the bleaching. Thus, after bleaching, the remaining PpIX was localized mainly in the deeper layers of normal tissue. We have applied fluorescence emission spectroscopy, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy, and reflectance spectroscopy in the study of the above-mentioned parameters. In conclusion, fluorescence excitation spectroscopy and reflectance spectroscopy are simple, useful, reliable, and noninvasive techniques in the evaluation of the processes taking place in human skin in vivo during and after PDT. Using these methods we were able to quantify melanogenesis, O 2 level, erythema, vasoconstriction, and vasodilatation.

Effect of the iron chelator deferoxamine (DF) on the production of endogenous porphyrins was studied in adenocarcinoma WiDr cells and erythroid K562 cells in vitro. Porphyrin fluorescence was observed in the cells in vitro incubated with DF. The fluorescence spectra recorded in the cells were similar to that of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). The amount of PpIX generated by DF was around 5% of the ALA effect. Around 90% of the WiDr cells incubated in vitro with DF (0.5 mM, 24 h) and then exposed to light (400-460 nm, 20 min) were photodynamically inactivated. In conclusion, the present study describes a novel approach of using iron chelating agents without 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) to photosensitize cancer cells.

Summary Background: Stability of ALA is an important factor for photodynamic therapy (PDT). The dimerization of ALA to pyrazines takes place via the amine group. It is, therefore, to be expected that blocking this group by addition of a formyl group should result in a more stable compound. Methods: The ability of a new N -formyl derivative of ALA ( N -f-ALA) to form protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) was compared with that of ALA and three of its ester (methyl, butyl and hexyl) derivatives. Dark toxicity of the compounds was measured using MTT assay. Formation of PPIX was measured by fluorescence spectroscopy. Results and conclusions: N -f-ALA showed an outstanding stability in water solutions even at pH 7. However, it induced no PPIX neither in WiDr cells in vitro, nor in mouse skin in vivo. A probable reason is lack of an enzyme that can cleave the bond between the formyl group and ALA. Thus, steric hindrance may prevent processing of the compound into porphobilinogen. N -f-ALA did not inhibit PpIX formation from ALA and is unable to enter the heme cycle. Generation of ALA from its derivatives, therefore, seems to be an essential step in PPIX synthesis.

This paper suggests that dairy products have natural contents of porphyrins and chlorins, and that these light sensitive compounds play an important role in photo-oxidation of cheese. Samples of the Gouda-like Norvegia cheese were exposed to light through plastic films of different colors. In addition, some samples were stored under transparent films and some in the dark. Sensory evaluation showed that cheese stored under transparent, violet and blue films were severely oxidized, while those stored under green, yellow, orange and red were less, but still significantly oxidized. Fluorescence analysis indicated that the photo degradation of porphyrins and chlorins correlated closely (R>0.90) with the sensory attributes oxidized odor, sun flavor and acidic flavor. The corresponding degradation of riboflavin correlated well with oxidized odor, but significantly less with the two other attributes ( R = 0.65 – 0.69 ). Fluorescence analysis indicated that the naturally present compounds in the cheese are protoporphyrin, hematoporphyrin, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. It is suggested that photo-induced breakdown of these compounds provides a significant contribution to photo-oxidation in cheese, and other dairy products.

Effects of photodynamic therapy (PDT) on adhesion of human adenocarcinoma cells of the line WiDr to a plastic substratum were investigated. Protoporphyrin IX induced by 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) was used as a photosensitizer. Light exposure inhibited attachment of suspended cells to a substratum. The adhesion was most strongly pronounced for light exposures around 200 mJ/cm(2) causing cell death. However, sub-lethal exposures (42 mJ/cm(2), 97% survival) inhibited cell adhesion as well. Sub-lethal ALA-PDT increased the intracellular space in dense colonies of WiDr cells. This was attributed to formation of lamellipodia between the cells and to increased numbers of focal contacts containing alpha(V)beta(3) integrin in some of the cells. The E-cadherin distribution was not changed by the treatment. Complex processes, including changes in cellular shape and reorganization of the cytoskeleton, are suggested to participate in the observed ALA-PDT effect on the cell adhesion.

Aminolevulinic acid (ALA), ALA methylester (ALA-Me) and ALA hexylester (ALA-Hex) were topically applied for 5 and 20 hr, respectively, on normal skin of mice. The distribution of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) induced in 7 different tissues by these drugs was determined either by spectrofluorometric measurements with an optical fibre probe or by chemical extraction of PpIX from the tissues. The results from these 2 types of measurements were compared. Both methods showed that ALA and the esters induced similar amounts of PpIX at the skin spot where they were applied and that the esters produced much less PpIX at remote skin spots (i.e., spots outside the location where the drugs were applied) than ALA did, notably after 20 hr application. After 20 hr of drug application ALA produced much more PpIX in liver, intestine and lungs than the esters did. In contrast with the direct fluorescence measurements, the extraction method showed detectable amounts of PpIX in liver, intestine and lung after application of the esters, notably of ALA-Me. The discrepancy is probably related to the fact that the pigmented tissues absorb light and, therefore, the direct fluorescence readings are misleading. Notably in the liver, which contains high concentration of light-absorbing pigments, very weak direct fluorescence was seen. In no case there was any accumulation of PpIX in muscle tissue nor in brain. The esters seem to penetrate less into the circulation than ALA, and PpIX formed by them in the skin is faster cleared than PpIX formed from ALA. This is also true after oral and i.p. administration of the drugs. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The fluorescence of PpIX induced by topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) in normal mouse skin was studied noninvasively by means of a fibre optic probe. The fluorescence excitation spectrum of PpIX exhibits five distinct peaks at around 408, 510, 543, 583 and 633 nm under fluorescence monitoring at the second emission peak of PpIX (705 nm). The transmission of the excitation light is wavelength dependent: the long wavelength light (>600 nm) penetrates deeper into the tissues by a factor of 6 compared with the short wavelength light (

No fluorescence of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) was measured using a fiber optic probe in pigmented B16F10 melanoma in mice after topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid methylester (ALA-Me). However, chemical extraction of tissues excised from mice after intratumoral administration of ALA-Me or its parent compound ALA revealed that this tumor had the capability to produce PpIX. Small amounts of endogenous porphyrins, mainly PpIX, were found in the melanoma not treated with these drugs. Topical application of ALA-Me followed by exposure with laser light (633nm) delayed the growth of the tumors slightly. Light alone also had a significant effect on the tumor growth.

Topical methyl aminolevulinate (MAL) is currently under study for the treatment of actinic keratoses. This approach involves topical application of MAL to the lesion to be exposed to light as well as a few millimetres of adjacent normal skin. We studied the effects of whole-body white light exposure following topical application of MAL to the entire back of hairless mice chronically exposed to UV radiation. Groups of mice were exposed to UV from FS20 lamps. One group of mice was treated weekly with 8% topical MAL followed 2 h later by suberythematous exposure to 1.2 J/cm(2) of light from a slide projector. MAL followed by light induced a significant delay in the time of appearance of the first tumour as compared to mice exposed only to UV ( P0.0001). After 26 weeks of UV exposure large tumours (/=4 mm) were present in 14 mice in the UV group as compared to only one mouse in the UV-MAL group. In mice treated on one side with MAL and the other side with vehicle, the delay in the appearance of tumour was only observed on the side treated with MAL, suggesting that a local rather than systemic effect was responsible for this phenomenon. In vivo fluorescence spectroscopy and quantitative fluorescence microscopy showed that there was a preferential accumulation of protoporphyrin IX in tumours as compared to adjacent UV-exposed skin and normal skin at the time of light exposure. In conclusion, topical MAL followed by light under suberythematous conditions delayed the appearance of UV-induced skin tumours without increasing mortality or morbidity, and thus acted in a prophylactic manner.

Aim: In this study, Ce3+-doped lanthanum(III) fluoride (LaF3:Ce3+) nanoparticles were synthesized by a wet-chemistry method in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and their application as an intracellular light source for photodynamic activation was demonstrated. Materials & methods: The LaF3:Ce3+/DMSO nanoparticles have a strong green emission with a peak at approximately 520 nm, which is effectively overlapped with the absorption of protoporphyrin IX (PPIX). The nanoparticles were encapsulated into poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) microspheres along with PPIX. Upon irradiation with x-rays (90 kV), energy transfer from the LaF3:Ce3+/DMSO nanoparticles to PPIX occurs and singlet oxygen is generated for cancer cell damage. Results: The LaF3:Ce3+/DMSO/PLGA or LaF3:Ce3+/DMSO/PPIX/PLGA microspheres alone caused only sublethal cytotoxicity to the cancer cells. Upon x-ray irradiation, the LaF3:Ce3+/DMSO/PPIX/PLGA microspheres induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and DNA fragmentation on prostate cancer cells (PC3). Discussion: The results indicate that x-rays can activate LaF3:Ce3+ and PPIX nanocomposites, which can be a novel method for cancer destruction. Original submitted 7 June 2013; Revised submitted 25 September 2013