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1 THE HISTORY OF THE CANON, THE STORY OF ITS CHANGING SHAPE, MIGHT be summed up thus: remembering and forgetting. In the last 25 years or so, we have remembered much of what the immediately previous generations of critics forgot. Byron, for instance, has benefited enormously from our remembering what might be called, simply, his "context." We have been able to remember Byron's stardom; "history" has helped us conjure up (something like) the presence of the Real Byron, the person who once lived, and who helped create and then underwrote the Byron Phenomenon, or "Byronism." (1) Valuing his pan-cultural presence in this way has involved not so much a recall of fact (for people always have remembered Byron, and his fame), but rather the broad re-creation of a former way of valuing Byron: creating the Byron Phenomenon was cultural work, and a kind of accomplishment we have remembered to recognize. Byron's poetic purpose, seen from the point of view of Byronism, is the dramatization of his titanic Self. Drama of Self also describes, of course, how so much of his poetry actually functions, the way the presence of the Real Byron underwrote, while he lived, the psychological drama of the poems. Byron's poetry, described this way, is both a cause and an extension of the Bryon Phenomenon, the multimedia event his life and works became; or, to employ a word he used often, his poetry is both a cause and an extension of his fame. Byron's poems had a palpable yet deliciously intangible relationship to Byron the person, someone you might meet, and he energized that relationship by circulating in London high life performing the role of the famous Lord Byron, "Bold Bad Bard Baron B.," as Wordsworth put it in 1816. (2) Had a relationship, instead of the has of the Critical Present: because Byron the person is dead and gone, and this relationship died with him. That is: remembering Byronism is not the same as experiencing it firsthand. In a famous and perhaps true story from the summer of 1816, the announcement of Byron's arrival at Mme. De Stael's villa, Coppet, was enough to render a woman at the party (a Lady Hervey, whom Byron describes as a novelist) unconscious. Like the sun, Byron radiated power, and those who got in his way felt it. But also like the sun, the Real Byron eventually set over the horizon of time, and even though so many later planets continued to reflect his light, eventually that reflection has diminished too. Without the burning source of Byron himself, the living person who makes it all happen, this kind of power, the power underwritten by the person, the person who looks a certain way, speaks to and touches others, becomes a name: a distant reflection of a reflection, a memory of the everyday phenomenon of fame. We forget; and the world forgets too. The radiation of our mortal effects out into the world--the evidence of our existence--eventually fades into darkness. The losses of mortality make room for the remembering of the" scholar, however, and these losses are enabling also. Forgetting creates the space for the story we call history. We want to remember Byronism, but we don't want to remember all of it. We do not faint upon remembering Byron, nor do we wish to. This part of the Byron Phenomenon is just like Anyone's Phenomenon, a story of mortality. Byronism may have been a pan-cultural development, but it depended on the bodily Byron, and eventually became writing on his tombstone. When we work to understand Byronism, we dig in his grave and exhume the past, but we have only remains to work with: his bones, his writings, the memories of others. Byron isn't coming back, no matter how many magazines from 1819 we read, and so, at the center of the story of the Byron Phenomenon, there is a hollow spot where Byron's body was. We can get some stuff back, but not all of it. Much of the textually centered criticism of the 20th century was proud of its refusal to fool around with moldering poetic bodies, and this refusal was entwined with a different way of valuing poetic work. …

Fractionation of cytotoxic extracts of specimens of a newly described sponge genus, Candidaspongia, has yielded the candidaspongiolides (3), a complex mixture of acyl esters of a macrolide related to tedanolide. The general structure of the candidaspongiolides was determined by analyses of various 2D NMR and MS data sets. The acyl ester componentswere identified by GC-MS analysis of the derived fatty acid methyl esters. The mixture could be selectively converted to the deacylated macrolide core (4) by enzymolysis with immobilized porcine lipase, with the structure of the candidaspongiolide core then secured by NMR and MS analysis. The candidaspongiolide mixture was potently cytotoxic, exhibiting a mean panel 50% growth inhibition (GI50) of 14 ng/mL in the National Cancer Institute’s 60-cell-line in Vitro antitumor screen.

L'ocean possede d'immenses ressources pharmacologiques. Mais leur extraction se heurte encore a de grosses difficultes.

Polycarpine 1 , a highly cytotoxic marine natural product, has been synthesized in three steps from p-methoxyphenacyl bromide 4 in 57% overall yield. The key reaction for construction of the symmetrically substituted disulfide linkage of polycarpine is the treatment of 2-amino-4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-methylimidazole 17 with S2Cl2 in acetic acid. In a similar way ten related compounds, including three thiazole analogues, have been prepared. Most of them exhibit high cytotoxic activities against an array of human cancer cell lines.

While most advanced Western countries allow the free movement of overseas capital in and out of their economies, many countries, particularly in the developing world, impose restrictions. In fact, the current dominance of freely floating rates is a relatively new historical development. Significant restrictions on capital mobility have been the norm until the globalization era which began in the 1980s. We apply the BOP equilibrium for Imperfectly Mobile Capital to the ISLM-BOP and examine how the results differ from those attained under Perfectly Mobile Capital. Here we see the applicability of the Keynesian multiplier. We move on to discuss fiscal budget sustainability and the Dornbusch model, which leads us into the history and evolution of the Euro. The current state and future of the Euro are discussed here. We discuss speculative currency attacks and their related phenomena of overshooting. We ask: how are private actors able to drive markets in the fact of powerful central banks? We explore the sources and limits of a central bank’s power.

In this final chapter we apply much of what we have previously learned as we examine several contemporary policy topics. We explore the policy of foreign exchange sterilization, and its contribution to the global imbalances that have built up in the early part of this century. The US dollar-Chinese yuan saga and controversy are explored at length. We discuss the US dollar's role as the world's reserve currency, and the potential challengers to the dollar's dominance. Finally, we explore a topic that has garnered attention in recent years as central banks have taken to increasingly unorthodox experimentation: fiat currency and the gold standard.

The journey into the main “engine room” of free trade, the Ricardian trade model, begins with a very necessary overview of some essential microeconomic building blocks, starting with the production possibilities frontier (PPF). Consumer preferences as represented by indifference curves are explained in detail with examples. The autarky production and consumption points are determined by the intersection of the production possibilities frontier with the highest possible indifference curve. Application of the Ricardian trade model shows that two trading countries can both consume on a higher indifference curve than was possible without trade. Through intra-industry trade, even countries with the same factor endowments and tastes can benefit from open trade.

World exports in 2010 included approximately US $14.9 trillion in merchandise and $3.7 trillion in services, meaning that of the world’s US $63 trillion of output, approximately 24 % involved goods and 6 % involved services traded across borders.

Finally we strip away David Ricardo’s restrictive assumptions one by one to find out: does Ricardian theory hold up even without these assumptions, in the real world? We explore the Production Life Cycle hypothesis, where countries move up the value chain, initially moving from agriculture into simple manufactures as they open up to trade, and progress through to higher and higher levels of production over time. We see how intra-industry trade, which accounts for a significant portion of the world’s trade overall, fits nicely within the Ricardian model. We present the Boeing 787 Dreamliner as a case study in intra-industry trade.

In Chapter 6 we leave the clean world of free trade and dive into trade barriers in their many incarnations, including tariffs, quotas, hassle-factors, and export subsidies. We see how tariffs harm overall welfare in both the importing and exporting countries. As bad as tariffs are, we see that quotas are even worse. Strategic trade - the protection of infant industries and champion industries - is explored at some length. Any distortive policy implemented by Country A is certain to face retaliation by Country B in the form of dumping claims and countervailing duties (CVDs). We see how these exacerbate the already bad effects of the initial barriers imposed by Country A. Finally, we take on two huge challenges to the notion of the beneficial nature of free trade: the Immiserization hypothesis, and Paul Samuelson's attack on free trade.

For centuries prior to the late eighteenth century, trade was driven by the concept of mercantilism, whereby countries gain specie (precious metals) through exports, and essentially lose by importing, and a net positive balance of trade was sought by all. Adam Smith introduced the notion of absolute advantage, whereby countries could gain by specializing in the goods they produced less expensively than the rest of the world and trading openly. David Ricardo’s concept of comparative advantage took this idea one step further: countries needn’t be the cheapest producer, only the most efficient with respect to the opportunity cost to produce their goods. Ricardo showed that between two trading countries, each will always by mathematical identity have a comparative advantage in something. Ricardo’s restricting assumptions are detailed; these will be relaxed in later chapters.

Five cyclic depsipeptides with molecular masses of 1007, 1021, 1021, 1035, and 1035 were obtained fromBacillus pumilus KMM 150 associated with Australian marine spongeIrcinia sp. Their structures were assigned by mass spectrometric techniques (high-resolution fast atom bombardment and electron impact mass spectrometry), chemical modification, and extensive spectroscopic analysis, including several types of two-dimensional NMR.

The sterol chemistry of 21 species of sponges from the orders Haplosclerida and Petrosida (Porifera: Demospongiae) was examined and compared, and the results analyzed using cluster analysis and ordination. Replicate samples within some species were examined statistically to determine if variability of sterol complements was constant within a species. The results of this study did not support separation of sponge species into the two orders, Haplosclerida and Petrosida, on the basis of sterol complements. While previous analyses of species within the Petrosida revealed the presence of unconventional sterol cyclopropenes and cyclopropanes, no such sterols were found in the petrosid sponges we examined. Species within the same families failed to group on the basis of sterol chemistry, suggesting either their taxonomic allocations at this level are incorrect, or sterol complement is not a useful feature at this taxonomic level. Some species within the same genus grouped together while others did not. Sterol complements of species remained constant irrespective of geographic locality or season collected. Sponge species have both a qualitative and quantitative sterol fingerprint. The data set provided evidence of a species complex within Xestospongia muta . Three specimens of this species contained significantly different sterol complements.

Preliminary investigation of the phospholipid fatty acid composition of the tropical marine sponge Amphimedon terpenensis by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry revealed the presence of some novel brominated fatty acids. Two new brominated fatty acids, (5E, 9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-tetracosadienoic acid (2a) and (5E, 9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-pentacosadienoic acid (3a) were subsequently isolated from a chloroform/methanol (3:1, vol/vol) extract of the sponge and characterized as their methyl esters 2b and 3b. The known brominated fatty acid (5E, 9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-hexacosadienoic acid (4a) was also isolated. The new fatty acid methyl esters were confirmed as brominated delta 5,9 acid derivatives by chemical ionization mass spectrometry. The position of the bromine substituent was determined to be C-6 by nuclear magnetic resonance techniques while the stereochemistry of the two double bonds was deduced by nuclear Overhauser enhancement difference spectroscopy. The biosynthetic implications of the co-occurrence of the three brominated acids are discussed.

A phenethylammonium salt of a new steroid sulfate, echinoclasterol sulfate (1) has been isolated from the marine sponge, Echinoclathria subhispida. The structure was determined by interpretation of spectral data including 2D NMR and FABMS. It exhibited antifungal activity against Mortierella ramannianus, and cytotoxicity against PC-9 human lung cancer cells.

Polycarpine 1 , a highly cytotoxic marine natural product, has been synthesized in three steps from p-methoxyphenacyl bromide 4 in 57% overall yield. The key reaction for construction of the symmetrically substituted disulfide linkage of polycarpine is the treatment of 2-amino-4-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-methylimidazole 17 with S2Cl2 in acetic acid. In a similar way ten related compounds, including three thiazole analogues, have been prepared. Most of them exhibit high cytotoxic activities against an array of human cancer cell lines.

The differing sponge and symbiotic microbial cell types in the tropical marine spongeAmphimedon sp. were fractionated according to density, investigated by electron microscopy, and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance for the presence of the terpene metabolite diisocyanoadociane (1) and Δ5,7-sterols (2–7). A sample of whole sponge was dissected into superficial ectosome and deeper choanosome. The superficial tissue was found to be enriched in sterol relative to choanosome; however, extracts from both tissues contained terpene. Dissociation of whole sponge followed by Ficoll density gradient fractionation showed that there are two chemically distinct types of sponge cells inAmphimedon sp.—small non-nucleolated cells of low density contain terpene 1 together with sterols, while larger nucleolated cells contain significant levels of terpene, but only traces of sterol. Membrane fractionation studies were undertaken to establish whether the terpene components were located specifically in the cell membranes of these two cell types. A membrane vesicle pellet spun down at 100,000×g from small sponge cells contained sterols, but only traces of terpene, whereas the membrane vesicle preparation from heavier cells contained both terpenes and sterols. Subsequently, the presence of terpenes together with sterols was demonstrated in a membrane vesicle preparation of purity >90% prepared from bacteria-free sponge cells. These results provide the first experimental evidence that terpenes are associated with sponge cell membranes, where they may function as structural components.

α1,3-Fucosyltransferase (Fuc TVII) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of selectin ligands. We have isolated two inhibitors of Fuc TVII from a marine sponge Sarcotragus sp. They were characterized as octa- and nonaprenylhydroquinone sulfates on the basis of spectral data. These compounds inhibited Fuc-TVII with IC50 values of 3.9 and 2.4 μg/mL, respectively.

The tropical marine spongeAmphimedon terpenensis (family Niphatidae, order Haplosclerida) has previously been shown to possess unusual lipids, including unusual fatty acids. The biosynthetic origin of these fatty acids is of interest as the sponge supports a significant population of eubacterial and cyanobacterial symbionts. The total fatty acid composition of the sponge was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of the methyl esters. Among the most abundant of the fatty acids in intact tissue were 16∶0, 18∶0 and 3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic (phytanic) acid. In addition, three brominated fatty acids, (5E,9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-tetracosadienoic acid (24∶2Br), (5E,9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-pentacosadienoic acid (25∶2Br) and (5E,9Z)-6-bromo-5,9-hexacosadienoic acid (26∶2Br) were also present. The three brominated fatty acids, together with phytanic acid, were isolated from both ectosomoal (superficial) and choanosomal (internal) regions of the sponge. Analysis of extracts prepared from sponge/symbiont cells, partitioned by density gradient centrifugation on Ficoll, indicated that phytanic acid and the three brominated fatty acids were associated with sponge cells only. Further, a fatty acid methyl ester sample from intact tissue ofA. terpenensis was partitioned according to phospholipid class, and the brominated fatty acids were shown to be associated with the phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine fractions that are commonly present in marine sponge lipids. The phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylglycerol fractions were rich in the relatively shorter chain fatty acids (16∶0 and 18∶0). The association of brominated long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) with sponge cells has been confirmed. The findings allow comment on the use of fatty acid profiles in chemotaxonomy and permit further interpretation of LCFA biosynthetic pathways in sponges. The assignment of the sponge studied, which is currently placed asA. terpenensis, is being supported to some extent, but the species is unusual in having C25 fatty acids as the major constituent in this group. Other factors, such as season or microenvironmental conditions, may influence observed fatty acid composition which tends to reduce the usefulness of fatty acid profiles as markers in sponge chemotaxonomy.

A compound active in the constitutive nitric oxide synthetase assay, the sulfonoglycolipid 3-O-(6′-deoxy-6′-sulfo-α-D-glucopyranosyl)-1-O-oleoyl-2-O-palmitoylglycerol, was isolated from the brown alga Dictyota ciliolata. This compound was characterized by several spectroscopic techniques and is the first reported occurrence of this class of compound in brown algae.

Six new diterpene isocyanides have been isolated from a sponge ( Adocia sp.). Their structures support the biosynthetic suggestion for the formation of diisocyanoadociane reported from the same sponge.