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New Zealand apple exports must meet strict phytosanitary measures to eliminate codling moth (Cydia pomonella Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larval infestation. This study was part of a program attempting the localized eradication of codling moth within an isolated cluster of seven orchards (391 ha). A conventional management program of insecticide sprays and pheromone mating disruption was supplemented with weekly releases of sterile moths for 1–6 yr. Our objective was to compare the recapture rate of sterile moths following their release by four methods, and the efficiency of each system. The methods were the following: a fixed-wing unmanned plane flying ~40–45 m high at 70 km/h, an unmanned hexacopter travelling 20 m high at 25 km/h, and manually from the ground via bicycles or motor vehicles. The different release methods were used in different years or weeks. Sterile male moths were recaptured in grids of pheromone traps positioned throughout each orchard. The highest recapture rate followed delivery by hexacopter, then bicycle, vehicle, and plane. There was a 17-fold difference in catches between releases by hexacopter and plane, and sixfold between vehicle and plane in the same season. Bicycle delivery had a 3.5-fold higher recapture rate than the plane in different years. The wind-borne horizontal drift of moths was investigated as a possible explanation for the disparity of recaptures between the two aircraft delivery systems. The methods in ascending order of time per hectare for delivery were the following: plane and vehicle, hexacopter, then bicycle. The advantages and disadvantages of each moth delivery method are discussed.

Sticky traps for monitoring insects use polybutene adhesive (PBA) to entangle insects. This glue is effective but messy to use and an alternative, hot-melt pressure-sensitive adhesive (HMPSA) is available. The effectiveness of these two adhesives was compared for catching pest and beneficial insects, primarily in apples. Various types of trap with either PBA or HMSPA were placed in orchards and vineyards in Hawke’s Bay and Nelson. Eight pests from six families, six parasitoids, five predators and one pollinator were commonly recorded. Traps with HMPSA generally caught similar numbers or more of both insect pests and beneficial insects than traps with PBA. Traps with HMPSA performed better for larger insects (>1.5 mm), whereas those with PBA tended to be more effective for smaller insects. Both types of adhesive were effective for up to 4 weeks. HMPSA was effective for monitoring a range of insect pests and beneficial insects. Compared with PBA, HMPSA was more consistent and much cleaner and easier to use. It is recommended that HMPSA replaces PBA in traps for monitoring moth pests in the pipfruit industry.

Since of the first sex pheromone and the adoption of pheromone in pest management, the global pheromone market size has grown to reach USD 2.4 billion per year in 2019. This has enabled the development of environmentally friendly approaches that significantly reduce the application of pesticides. Recently, there have been reports of the failure of various commercial codlemone: (E,E)-8,10-dodecadien-1-ol formulations used for monitoring the apple pest codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.). This work was initiated to investigate factors behind the lack of efficacy of codlemone lure in the Northern Hemisphere (Germany) and Southern Hemisphere (New Zealand). We hypothesised that the observed failure could be due to two main factors: (a) a shift in the response of male codling moth to codlemone and (b) degradation of codlemone under field conditions that renders the lure less attractive. Field trial tests of various doses and blends containing minor pheromone compounds suggested no change in response of male codling moth. The addition of an antioxidant and a UV stabiliser to codlemone resulted in a significant increase in the number of males caught in Germany, but not in New Zealand. Mean maximum temperatures during the growing season since 2004 indicate a 3 °C increase to 35 °C in Germany, but just a 1.5 °C rise to 30 °C in New Zealand. Chemical analysis of the lures used in the field trials in Germany and New Zealand indicated more degradation products and reduced half-life of the lures in Germany compared with those in New Zealand. Heating codlemone lures to 32 °C significantly reduced the number of males caught in traps and increased the isomeric and chemical impurities of codlemone compared with unheated lures. Our data provide the first evidence that climate change affects pheromone molecule stability, thus reducing its biological efficacy. Our finding suggests that climate change could be a general problem for chemical communication and, therefore, could affect the integrity of natural ecosystems.

Apple leafcurling midge (ALCM) is an important quarantine pest of New Zealand apples. Current methods for ALCM control have difficulty meeting the strict phytosanitary standards of some export markets. ‘Lure and kill’ is a new strategy against this pest, in which males are attracted to an insecticide-treated substrate where they collect a lethal dose. Trials were conducted using a gel matrix “Specialized Pheromone & Lure Application Technology” (SPLATâ„¢) to dispense and release the ALCM sex pheromone and the insecticide permethrin. Lures using SPLATâ„¢ were placed within plastic cylinder traps that collected the dead midges so they could be counted to determine treatment efficacy. The size, shape and age of SPLATâ„¢ spots influenced midge catches. Higher catches occurred with spots having a larger quantity of pheromone, greater surface area of SPLATâ„¢, or with fresh material. The implications for the development of a lure and kill strategy for ALCM are discussed.

Apple leafcurling midge is an important quarantine pest for New Zealand apple exports. Season-long pheromone trapping was conducted in Hawke’s Bay and Nelson from 2004—2017, and from 2012—2017 in Central Otago. Four generations occurred annually in Hawke’s Bay and Nelson and 3—4 in Central Otago. In Hawke’s Bay and Nelson, the timing of each peak varied by about 3—4 weeks between years, while the difference was ~2—3 weeks in Central Otago during fewer years of monitoring. Hawke’s Bay was up to a month earlier than Central Otago for the same peak within individual years. The major factor behind this variability was the accumulated number of growing degree-days. Insecticide sprays target midge larvae, but are timed against the second and third peaks of adult emergence. Variations in the timing of these peaks annually and across the main pipfruit growing regions, mean that specific insecticide timing recommendations are necessary each year for each region.

The sterile insect technique (SIT) is increasingly being evaluated as a potential complementary strategy for pest suppression or elimination New Zealands export fruit sector has an imperative to meet strict international phytosanitary requirements together with increasing market demand for residuefree produce SIT is a pestspecific method of insect control that can complement current Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies Successful SIT presents significant challenges the target pest must be a good candidate for suppression and strong stakeholder and community commitment is required to achieve and maintain suppression until areawide elimination is achieved Emerging sterilisation technologies and refinement of existing methods are making this technology progressively more efficient and costeffective This study reviewed the advantages of including SIT in an IPM programme and described the first use of codling moth SIT in New Zealand A pilot programme is currently underway to evaluate its potential to achieve local elimination of codling moth in Central Hawkes Bay apple orchards

Pest management in New Zealand's pipfruit Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) programme relies on selective pesticides, biological control and pheromone mating disruption. The current situation is potentially precarious and one concern, the impact of less selective pesticides, was tested. Apple trees received synthetic pyrethroid (deltamethrin) sprays during the first half of two growing seasons. Beneficial and pest species were monitored monthly from November to April. Treated trees had fewer predatory bugs (91- 100% reduction), lacewings (64-100%), earwigs (80-100%), predatory mites (67-100%), spiders (20-64%) and Hymenoptera (16-49%) than untreated trees. Ladybird numbers varied depending on the assessment method. Outbreaks of phytophagous mites and woolly apple aphid occurred on treated trees, but there were fewer apple leafcurling midge, San Jose scale and Froggatt's apple leafhopper on untreated trees. Factors that make pest management under IFP vulnerable in the future, include a loss of biological control and the consequences of new pests establishing.

New pest management practices in New Zealand's apple sector have provided ecological and economic outcomes that are recognised by growers and exporters. Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) pest control systems that combine biological control, selective insecticides and mating disruption have been developed to achieve these outcomes. Although pest management in apple orchards is now more sustainable, it is also highly vulnerable to pesticide-induced disruption. The toxicity of four pesticides (spinetoram, thiacloprid, spinosad and spirotetramat) on the natural enemy of woolly apple aphid, Aphelinus mali, was examined. While applications of spinetoram were the primary cause of aphid outbreaks in 2007-08, other insecticides can contribute to the instability of this biocontrol system. The consequences of applying these disruptive pesticides to aphid control are discussed, together with strategies to mitigate the vulnerability of the IFP programme to pest outbreaks.

BACKGROUND The identification of new attractants can present opportunities for developing mass trapping, but standard screening methods are needed to expedite this. We have developed a simple approach based on quantifying trap interference in 4 × 4 trap arrays with different spacings. We discuss results from sex pheromones in Lepidoptera (light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana), Diptera (apple leaf curling midge, Dasineura mali) and Homoptera (citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae), compared with a kairomone for New Zealand flower thrips (Thrips obscuratus). RESULTS The ratio of catch in corner traps to catch in centre traps was 25:1 at 750 D. mali traps ha−1, and was still ∼5:1 at 16 traps ha−1, suggesting trap interference even at such low trap densities. Trap competition for sex pheromone lures at close spacing (

BACKGROUND Apple leaf midge, Dasineura mali (Kieffer), poses quarantine issues for some apple export markets because larvae occasionally pupate in the stem end and calyx of fruit. Pheromone-baited oil-filled containers were used in 1 ha orchard plots to trap adult male D. mali in order to test the potential for mass trapping to reduce populations. RESULTS Mass-trapped plots had 97% fewer adult males in pheromone traps and 48% fewer larvae per shoot in the second D. mali generation compared with untreated areas. Oil traps caught on average 900 000 D. mali per plot over 11 weeks during the second and third generations. Catches averaged 9200 per trap at plot corners. By comparison, catches were 51% lower 10–25 m away along borders, 80% lower at the midpoint of borders and 95% lower >7 m from plot edges. Fruit infestation was low (four out of 8000 apples). CONCLUSION The attractiveness of the pheromone, monophagous habit and low mobility of D. mali enhance the prospects for successful mass trapping. Countering this are high populations, multivoltinism and aspects of mating behaviour. Mass trapping would probably have been more effective had it been in place season long and conducted over successive years. It needs refinements and more study before becoming a feasible control option for D. mali. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

Research to discover and develop attractants for the codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., has involved identification of the chemicals eliciting moth orientation to conspecific female moths, host fruits, fermented baits, and species of microbes. Pear ester, acetic acid, and N-butyl sulfide are among those chemicals reported to attract or enhance attractiveness to codling moth. We evaluated the trapping of codling moth with N-butyl sulfide alone and in combination with acetic acid and pear ester in apple orchards. Acetic acid was attractive in two tests and N-butyl sulfide was attractive in one of two tests. N-Butyl sulfide increased catches of codling moth when used with acetic acid to bait traps. N-Butyl sulfide also increased catches of codling moth when added to traps baited with the combination of acetic acid and pear ester. Male and female codling moth both responded to these chemicals and chemical combinations. These results provide a new three-component lure comprising N-butyl sulfide, acetic acid, and pear ester that is stronger for luring codling moth females than other attractants tested.

Feeding by leafroller larvae damages grape bunches and makes them susceptible to Botrytis cinerea disease. Leafroller infestation of foliage and bunches and the incidence of botrytis was measured on vineyards in Gisborne, Hawke's Bay and Marlborough over 2 years. Forty-four blocks received no leafroller-active insecticides while 22 were sprayed once pre-flowering with the selective insect growth regulator, tebufenozide. Tebufenozide very effectively reduced infestations and gave season-long control. On leaves, untreated blocks averaged 14 leafrollers/search compared with 4 on sprayed blocks. Comparative figures for fruit at harvest were 18/100 bunches and 3/100, respectively. There was a trend for lower botrytis incidence in blocks where tebufenozide was used. Over 99% of the leafrollers reared were Epiphyas postvittana. Parasitism of larvae and pupae at 67% on leaves and 50% in bunches, was similar in untreated and treated blocks. Epiphyas postvittana in vineyards is easily managed using tebufenozide, which did not compromise biological control.

New Zealand apple growers need to produce crops that satisfy conlicting export market requirements. Some markets want pest-free fruit, while others demand residue-free fruit. Pheromone mating disruption combined with the judicious use of insecticides enables crops to meet both demands. This study in 14 Hawke's Bay apple orchards showed that seasonal pheromone trap catch was reduced by 70%, from 40.1 codling moths/trap in the season before mating disruption was introduced to 11.7 moths/trap over the subsequent ive seasons. In the same period, insecticide use reduced from 5.9 applications/season in 2006- 07 to 2.3 in 2007-08 and 3.7 since 2008-09. The incidence of larvae in fruit where mating disruption operated averaged 0.01%, which was lower than in orchards using insecticides only. Damage increased from 2008-09 with greater reliance on codling moth granulosis virus over residual insecticides. Nevertheless, mating disruption with 3-4 insecticide sprays controlled codling moth to the high standard needed.

Codling moth ( Cydia pomonella) and leafrollers, principally lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana), are key pests of apples. Pheromone mating disruption has until now required separate dispensers to be deployed for each pest group. With 600-1000 dispensers per ha for each species, application costs are a signiicant factor limiting the wider adoption of multi-species mating disruption in New Zealand apple orchards. The aim was to integrate the two disruption systems into a single dispenser, and evaluate its performance against that of separate dispensers, in paired block comparisons on four apple orchards. The three measures of effectiveness , pheromone trap catch, suppression of moth mating and fruit damage at harvest, all showed no statistical differences between the two treatments. The performance of the new combination pheromone dispenser was equivalent to that when the two dispensers were deployed separately.

Mealybug infestations in New Zealand apples declined when integrated fruit production was implemented in the late 1990s. In Hawke's Bay, however, mealybugs have recently become an increasing problem. The mean incidence of mealybugs at harvest increased from 1.7% in 2008 to 2.2% in 2010. In 2009 and 2010, almost 50% of blocks had a higher incidence than the previous year. Analysis of spray diaries suggested that spray programmes up to 2009-10 were inadequate to maintain long-term suppression of mealybugs. Key factors were the number of insecticide sprays, their time of application, and the choice of product, but not spray coverage. Consequently, in spring 2010, orchard managers were encouraged to follow a 'best practice' spray programme against mealybugs, which led to markedly improved mealybug control. At harvest in 2011, the mean incidence was 0.7% and just 14% of blocks had more mealybugs than the previous year while almost 60% had fewer.

Grapevine leafroll-associated Virus 3 debilitates grapevines, reducing yields and juice quality, and eventually makes vineyards uneconomic. Mealybugs (Pseudococcus spp.) are the key insect pests of grapes in New Zealand because they are the principal vectors of this virus. Until recently, all insecticides registered for their control depended on direct contact, but mealybugs live in hard-to-treat parts of vines. This research tested the efficacy of two neonicotinoid insecticides, imidacloprid and SCAL 5085, that have translaminar and systemic activity. Two field trials were conducted on commercial vineyards with the insecticides applied as soil drenches. In the first trial, imidacloprid applied at 0.525 g ai/vine reduced mealybug abundance by >99% compared with untreated vines, and autumn and spring applications were equally effective. Half this rate was less effective, although drenching in autumn was better than in spring. In the second trial, treatments were applied in winter, and SCAL 5085 at 0.263 g ai/vine provided equivalent control to imidacloprid at 0.525 g ai/vine.

Leafrollers are important pests of apples and infested fruit can result in rejection of export consignments. Leafroller mating disruption using a pheromone blend with activity against three species was examined in 12 Hawke's Bay orchards over two seasons (2009- 10 and 2010-11). Pheromone dispensers (600/ha) and a single insecticide were applied to trees in early November, and subsequent insecticide use was based on leafroller pheromone trapping and thresholds. The pheromone blend substantially suppressed mating of virgin female lightbrown apple moth in treated orchards and reduced male catch in pheromone traps by up to 98% compared with the season prior to implementation. Insecticide use for leafroller control decreased accordingly, from 2.1-2.7 insecticides per block in 2008/09 to 1.0-1.8 in 2010/11. Leafroller control using mating disruption was acceptable, fruit damage varied from 0.3% to 0.16% and no leafroller larvae were found on fruit in both field assessments and phytosanitary inspections of packed cartons.

Insects may adopt a range of strategies such as diapause, migration and phenotypic plasticity to achieve maximal survival and reproduction in response to the environment. However, the phenotypic plasticity of voltinism in local populations of biological control agents is still poorly understood, making evaluation of biological control efficiency difficult. Here we report our two years’ work on a parasitic wasp, Platygaster demades Walker (Hymenoptera: Platygasteridae), a parasitoid of apple leaf-curling midge, Dasineura mali Kieffer (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). P. demades produces aestivating and non-aestivating phenotypes at the embryonic stage over the season. It regulates the frequency and duration of aestivating phenotypes from the late spring to mid autumn and adjusts the embryonic developmental rate of non-aestivating phenotypes from the early to late autumn, producing univoltine, bivoltine, trivoltine and quadrivoltine phenotypes over the season. The regulation of aestivation frequency and duration is a temporal risk-spreading strategy for maximal survival, i.e., when the future food source is expected to be short the wasp regulates its population by entering aestivation in a frequency and duration concordant with the expected scale and duration of food shortage to avoid massive mortality. This strategy helps maintain a large overwintering population size for the next season. The adjustment of the embryonic developmental rate for the non-aestivating phenotype from the early to late autumn is an adaptive developmental strategy for maximal synchronization with the host, D. mali, i.e., the later the D. mali larvae become mature, the faster the parasitoid embryos develop. This strategy ensures that both aestivated and non-aestivated individuals reach a complete synchronization with the emergence of their hosts in the next spring.

Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and their insect natural enemies were collected from vineyards in the major winegrowing regions of New Zealand from 1993 to 2009. Mealybugs were identifi ed from 131 separate collections, and their presence on grapevines compared with that on neighbouring citrus trees in Hawke's Bay and Gisborne in 2003. Pseudococcus longispinus and P. calceolariae were the most common mealybugs found in vineyards throughout the country. Both species were present and widespread in most vineyards, and on many grape varieties, but there was often marked (and unpredictable) spatial and temporal separation. Two other mealybug species were found, each on one occasion: the exotic Pseudococcus viburni from Hawke's Bay in 1998, and the endemic Paracoccus abnormalis from Auckland in 2008. Natural enemies were collected or reared from their mealybug hosts from 51 of the collections. Seven species of parasitoids and four species of predators were commonly collected, with no apparent regional con...

New Zealand’s major fruit industries are dependent upon producing high-quality crops for export with a very low incidence of pest damage. Light brown apple moth was an economically important pest within the fruit sector in the 1960s through the 1980s, and it developed resistance to broad-spectrum insecticides. The increase in its pest status focused research on biological control, and existing native natural enemies were augmented with new introductions from Australia in the late 1960s. By the early 1990s, this effort resulted in substantially reduced leafroller populations and fruit damage. The implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs in the New Zealand fruit sector in the mid- to late 1990s practically eliminated the use of broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticides, further enhancing natural control. Today light brown apple moth is successfully managed in IPM and organic programs through a combination of biological control and threshold-based applications of selective insecticides.

Mealybugs (Hemiptera Pseudococcidae) are the most important insect pests in New Zealand vineyards because they vector grapevine leafroll virus which seriously debilitates vines and reduces wine quality A field trial was conducted on a commercial vineyard using the insecticides prothiofos (Tokuthion) and buprofezin (Applaudtrade;) Factors tested were the timing and number of applications water rate (250 500 or 1000 litres/ha) and inclusion of an alkylsilicone or organosilicone spreadertype adjuvant Prothiofos was applied in late September (late dormant) while buprofezin was sprayed at late dormant mid October and late November (preflowering) The best treatments for reducing mealybug numbers and proportion of infested leaves were prothiofos at late dormant and two later applications of buprofezin Two applications of buprofezin were more effective than one more than halving the number of mealybugs A water rate of 500 litres/ha was equally as effective as 1000 litres/ha None of the three adjuvants improved the efficacy of prothiofos or buprofezin

The midge Dasineura mali (Kieffer) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a significant pest of apples (Malus spp.), and the recent identification of the female sex pheromone is enabling new direct control tactics to be considered. Direct control using male suppression will require knowledge of the frequency of multiple mating, dispersal and colonization rates, and the efficiency of male removal. Males were able to mate up to five times, with a mean of 2.7 times when presented in a 10 female-to-1 male group, designed to simulate male suppression. Male catch in response to the pheromone loading was curvilinear over 4 orders of magnitude from 3 microg to 30 mg on rubber septa. Trapping using a high-dose pheromone lure was combined with oil-based traps similar to the inexpensive New Zealand "Lynfield trap" used for tephritid surveillance, to test male suppression in young orchard blocks at 500 traps per ha. Monitoring traps indicated 96% lower catch in the treated plots compared with control plots, over 137 d. However, a lack of shoot tip infestation in both treated and untreated plots indicated limited colonization and prevented an assessment of potential population suppression. Furthermore, a contribution to these results from communication disruption cannot be ruled out. Replicated transects of frequency of infested shoots from a mature orchard across the adjacent young block confirmed that colonization by ovipositing females was essentially limited to the first 30 m.

Leafroller larvae especially Epiphyas postvittana damage grape bunches and more importantly promote spread of the disease botrytis (Botrytis cinerea) Three methods of monitoring leafrollers were compared on 10 Hawkes Bay vineyard blocks The methods were timed searches of leaves for larvae inspection of bunches for larvae and pheromone trapping of adult males Seasonal changes in leafroller abundance were similar on all vineyards Usually few larvae were found until February but infestations increased greatly between then and March In other respects leafroller infestations were variable between and sometimes within blocks None of the monitoring methods was completely successful The most useful method was bunch inspection primarily because of the close correlation between bunch infestations in January and at harvest However this method is relatively laborious and did not give enough warning to enable use of some insecticides Leafroller infestations on leaves in all months and pheromone trap data were poor predictors of harvest bunch damage

The effect of three fungicides in five programmes on densities of Halmus chalybeus (steelblue ladybird) was tested in a citrus orchard. Programmes of five and nine applications of cupric hydroxide or chlorothalonil reduced densities by c. 35% and 70% respectively, compared with unsprayed plots. One application of copper sulphate and lime (Bordeaux mixture) reduced ladybird density by 81%, similar to the two nine‐application programmes. These reductions in numbers were probably due to a repellent effect since the fungicides had a relatively low toxicity. Ten fungicides, nine insecticides, and a miticide were screened for toxicity to adult H. chalybeus by a dip method. Copper‐based fungicides were more toxic than non‐copper fungicides at 3 times label rates, but not at label rates. The insecticides taufluvalinate, permethrin/pirimphos‐methyl, diazinon, and potassium salt were highly toxic at label rates. Two mineral oils, chlorpyrifos, and the miticide azocyclotin were moderately toxic, whereas bup...

Leafrollers (Tortricidae) were collected from apple foliage and understorey vegetation in six commercial organic apple orchards in Hawke’s Bay over one season. Assessments were made of plant species present in the understorey at the time of collection. All leafroller larvae were reared to adults on artificial diet to identify leafroller species and parasitoids. Nearly half (47%) of all leafrollers collected in these orchards were located in the understorey, highlighting the importance of understorey and its management for the control of leafroller. Dock, clover and dandeliontype plants contributed 25% to the overall understorey, yet hosted 75% of the leafrollers collected from the understorey. Dolichogenidea sp. was the most abundant parasitoid (79%) attacking leafrollers found amongst the apple foliage, whereas Glyptapanteles demeter was dominant in the understorey (61%). Generally the number of leafrollers in an orchard was proportional to the abundance of broadleaf weeds and inversely proportional to parasitism.

The identification of new attractants can present opportunities for developing mass trapping, but standard screening methods are needed to expedite this. We have developed a simple approach based on quantifying trap interference in 4 × 4 trap arrays with different spacings. We discuss results from sex pheromones in Lepidoptera (light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana), Diptera (apple leaf curling midge, Dasineura mali) and Homoptera (citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae), compared with a kairomone for New Zealand flower thrips (Thrips obscuratus).The ratio of catch in corner traps to catch in centre traps was 25:1 at 750 D. mali traps ha(-1) , and was still ∼5:1 at 16 traps ha(-1) , suggesting trap interference even at such low trap densities. Trap competition for sex pheromone lures at close spacing (5 m) was evident in 16-trap arrays of P. calceolariae, but less so for E. postvittana. No trap competition was observed at 4 m spacings with the kairomone for T. obscuratus.The ratio of catch in traps in the corner and centre of a 16-trap array at different spacings offers a rapid preliminary assessment method for determining the potential for mass trapping. Additional knowledge of vital rates and dispersal is needed for predicting population suppression. Our approach should have value in mass trapping development. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry.

Apple leaf midge, Dasineura mali (Kieffer), poses quarantine issues for some apple export markets because larvae occasionally pupate in the stem end and calyx of fruit. Pheromone-baited oil-filled containers were used in 1 ha orchard plots to trap adult male D. mali in order to test the potential for mass trapping to reduce populations.Mass-trapped plots had 97% fewer adult males in pheromone traps and 48% fewer larvae per shoot in the second D. mali generation compared with untreated areas. Oil traps caught on average 900 000 D. mali per plot over 11 weeks during the second and third generations. Catches averaged 9200 per trap at plot corners. By comparison, catches were 51% lower 10-25 m away along borders, 80% lower at the midpoint of borders and 95% lower7 m from plot edges. Fruit infestation was low (four out of 8000 apples).The attractiveness of the pheromone, monophagous habit and low mobility of D. mali enhance the prospects for successful mass trapping. Countering this are high populations, multivoltinism and aspects of mating behaviour. Mass trapping would probably have been more effective had it been in place season long and conducted over successive years. It needs refinements and more study before becoming a feasible control option for D. mali.

To assist the natural distribution of the leafroller parasitoid Trigonospila brevifacies to horticultural areas in the Nelson region 181 T brevifacies pupae and 329 adults were released in 1999 at four sites adjacent to apple orchards near Motueka Release material was supplied from fieldcollected parasitoids in Hawkes Bay and a laboratory colony held at the Mt Albert Research Centre in Auckland Successful establishment of the parasitoid was recorded at all four sites and at a nearby nonrelease site in 2000 In 2000 319 of fourth instar and older larvae were parasitised by T brevifacies while in 2001 parasitism was 1166 Important pest tortricid species including Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (lightbrown apple moth) were among the hosts The successful establishment of T brevifacies in Nelson and its further natural dispersal will increase the potential for the reduction of economically important leafroller species by biocontrol agents

Predation by Halmus chalybeus (steelblue ladybird) on two species of wax scale was studied on citrus orchards in Northland, New Zealand. Field experiments using an exclusion technique of enclosing citrus branches in bags, found that larval and adult H. chalybeus preyed on first and second instars of both Ceroplastes destructor (white wax scale) and C. sinensis (Chinese wax scale), but not third instar C. destructor. Third instar C. sinensis and adults of both species were not tested but are rarely, if ever, attacked by H. chalybeus. The sampling of scale and ladybird populations and field experiments showed that few scales of either species survived past the second instar stage where H. chalybeus was numerous. The feeding rate of H. chalybeus on settled first and second instar scales was estimated inside bagged branches. Adults consumed on average 15.6 C. destructor and 13.3 C. sinensis per day per ladybird, while larvae ate 9.7 C. destructor per day. These feeding rates accounted for the experimental red...

The infestation of apple (Malus domestica) trees by Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) larvae was studied over 3 years. Fresh damage to leaves increased progressively during the season, although in Nelson it declined in April. Fruit damage was first detected in December and increased throughout the season. The incidence of fruit damage was most strongly correlated with the surface area of fruit. Single leaves were the preferred feeding site for larvae on terminal shoots, although when whole branches were examined, most shelters occurred between two leaves. Feeding sites on fruit predominantly involved contact with a leaf or another apple. A field experiment examined the influence of physical contact and fruit maturation on leafroller damage. E. postvittana larvae were offered a choice of feeding sites involving leaves and three types of “apple” namely untreated apples, apples treated with chlorethephon to promote ripening, and plastic balls. There was 16% more damage on treated compared with untreated...

Leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larvae damage grape bunches directly by feeding on the flowers, berries and stalks. Damaged berries can become infected by fungi such as Botrytis cinerea that cause diseases, leading to further indirect yield losses. In a field trial, Chardonnay bunches were infested with lightbrown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, larvae at monthly intervals from December to March. The greatest losses (12% of the fresh weight at harvest) occurred in bunches infested in December and March. In December, the main cause of loss of berries was direct feeding damage, whereas by March, indirect losses to disease outweighed those directly due to larvae. Leafroller infestations up to January did not increase disease in bunches above the background level of infection. In Hawke’s Bay, leafrollers have the greatest effect on yields from February onwards when infestation of vines increases greatly and berries become more susceptible to diseases.

Resistance to the organophosphate insecticide azinphos-methyl has been previously identified in two species of leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in New Zealand. This study confirmed resistance in a third species, Ctenopseustis obliquana. Populations of Epiphyas postvittana, Planotortrix. octo and C. obliquana resistant to azinphos-methyl were not cross-resistant to lufenuron. A separate population of C. obliquana was resistant to taufluvalinate. Cross-resistance between azinphosmethyl and tebufenozide occurred in P octo and C. obliquana, but not in E. postvittana. This difference in cross-resistance between the three species suggests that at least two different detoxification mechanisms may be operating. Therefore we cannot generalise about whether resistant populations of each species will be fully susceptible to new insecticides. Lufenuron is recommended as a key insecticide within a resistance management programme for leafrollers, while tebufenozide should be used with caution.

We recorded the numbers of cells, and where possible distinguished between cells containing pupating larvae and vacated cells, from 585 paper wasp nests from the northern North Island, New Zealand, plus nest site characteristics of 540 of these nests. Nests of Polistes chinensis antennalis and P. humilis developed at similar rates in early summer. P. c. antennalis nests were larger at the Post‐emergence stage than those of P. humilis, and contained more vacated cells but less capped cells. All of the P. c. antennalis nests had reached the Post‐emergence stage by February in Northland, but not in the other regions. P. c. antennalis nests in the Post‐emergence stage were larger in Northland than further south, and contained the most capped or vacated cells. Nests of both species were usually found in northern‐facing sites. Substrate did not affect nest size. Differences between the species in nest sites included greater use of manmade structures by P. c. antennalis; the use of leaves by P. humilis ...

The incidence of parasitism and disease in third-instar and adult Ceroplastes destructor Newstead and C. sinensis Del Guercio (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on citrus in Northland, New Zealand, was measured from 1991-1994. Both species were parasitized by female Euxanthellus philippiae Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Female E. philippiae were hyper-parasitized by males of their own species and by Coccidoctonus dubius Girault (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Male E. philippiae were also tertiary parasitoids of C. dubius. E. philippiae was found in third-instar and adult C. sinensis , but was virtually restricted to third-instar C. destructor . Parasitoid phenology varied according to the instar and species of the host. Two fungal pathogens, Verticillium lecanii (Zimmermann) Viegas and Fusarium spp., were identified from both C. destructor and C. sinensis . Disease was a greater mortality factor than parasitism in C. destructor , whereas the opposite applied to those C. sinensis for which the cause of death could be...

The comparative abundance of orchard pest leafroller larvae was determined on eight host plants in the vicinity of pipfruit orchards. The greatest numbers occurred in Canterbury, followed by Nelson, Hawke's Bay, and Central Otago. In Hawke's Bay, leafroller larvae were Ctenopseustis obliquana (41%), Planotortrix octo (15%), Epiphyas postvittana (16%), and Cnephasia jactatana (9%), and were most abundant on poplar, willow, and alder. In Nelson, leafrollers were E. postvittana (25%), Planotortrix excessana (23%), C. obliquana (23%), and C. herana (22%), found on willow, alder, clover, poplar, gorse, broom, dock, and plantain. In Canterbury, larvae were C. herana (51%), E. postvittana (34%), and P. octo (15%), mainly on broom, gorse, alder, poplar, dock, and clover. Leafrollers were very rare on host plants sampled in Central Otago, despite their pest status in horticulture. A total of 1460 larvae were reared to adults from the four regions, with 31% parasitism, of which two thirds were Dolichogenid...

Apple orchardists in Twyford, Hawke’s Bay, have reported increased fruit damage by leafrollers for several years. Of the three pest species present in this area, Planotortrix octo (greenheaded leafroller), is the main species found on fruit. First instar P. octo larvae were screened for resistance by a direct spray test using a Potter tower. Dosage-mortality responses for the offspring of wild-wild pairs from three orchards showed a 7-32 fold resistance to azinphos-methyl compared with larvae from a susceptible laboratory colony. P. octo larvae from one of the above and 16 further orchards were sprayed with a single diagnostic dosage (LD 99 for the susceptible strain). Resistance was found at 17 of 19 sites covering approximately 1000 ha. A resistance management strategy, using pheromone mating disruption, is being implemented.

The main scale insect pest in citrus orchards in Northland, New Zealand was Ceroplastes destructor although C. sinensis was more widespread. We studied the phenology of both species over 3 years by regularly sampling scales on leaves and wood for laboratory examination. Both species were univoltine. The start of C. destructor crawler emergence varied by c. 7 weeks o ver 6 years, and was inversely correlated with annual degree‐days. Egg hatching occurred c. 2 months earlier in C. destructor than C. sinensis. The development of successive instars continued to be earlier in C. destructor so it passed through the first and second instar stages by autumn and 4 months faster than did C. sinensis. First and second instars are vulnerable to adverse weather and predation and their longer duration in C. sinensis may partly account for its lower abundance. We predict that control by insecticides should be most effective in late January for C. destructor and in late March for C. sinensis.

The phenology of soft wax scale, Ceroplastes destructor (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Coccidae), was monitored on Seminole tangelo (Citrus paradisi (Macfadyen) x C. reticula (Blanco)) trees in 1988189 and 1989190 at Kerikeri. The scale was univoltine at Kerikeri. First instar crawlers were first found on leaves in early December. These gave rise to 1st then 2nd instar ray stages which were most abundant on leaves over December and January. After 4-5 weeks the rays then moved to their final position on the wood and changed to the 3rd instar peak stage. These were abundant over March and April before changing into the 4th instar adults. The scale overwintered as both peaks and adults. In spring there was a rapid increase in gravid adults with oviposition under the female body commencing in early November. Crawlers began to hatch from the eggs in early December and moved out from under the wax test to form the next generation.

The aerial dispersal and settlement of armoured scale into kiwifruit Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) orchards was assessed using scale-free kiwifruit trap plants. Greedy scale Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock) invasion was monitored over five seasons from 1985 to 1990 in an orchard adjacent to taraire trees Beilschmiedia taraire Benth. and Hook. f. Two major periods of invasion occurred in summer and autumn corresponding to the two scale generations on taraire. The intensity of invasion varied between generations and seasons with a peak rate of 8.7 scale/ 100 leaves per day in January 1987. Scale invasion was highest in kiwifruit blocks immediately adjacent to the taraire trees and declined in blocks further away. A survey of 25 kiwifruit orchards identified clear gradients in both greedy scale and latania scale H. lataniae (Signoret) settlement, with higher levels closest to host plants. Scale invasion was reduced where host plants were removed or when host plants were regularly sprayed with insectic...

A dispenser incorporating a pheromone blend to disrupt three species of New Zealand leafrollers was developed for their control in Otago summerfruit orchards. This control system was evaluated for suppression of leafroller activity in Hawke’s Bay apple and summerfruit orchards over 2 years. In 2007-8, dispensers were applied at 600-1000/ha in two large organic apple orchards and activity of all three species in pheromone traps was recorded. Dispensers achieved only 73.8% and 61% shut-down of lightbrown apple moth pheromone traps in Orchards A and B respectively. Dispensers were modified to increase disruption of this species and were evaluated in similar trials on the same orchards in 2008-9, and achieved 98.4% and 90.9% trap shut-down respectively. The same dispenser was also evaluated on four summerfruit orchards, where it was applied to 1 ha plots in January 2009 at 1000 dispensers/ha. Pheromone trap catches of lightbrown apple moth were reduced by 83.3–100% over the following 3 months. Further assessment of this multiple species mating disruption system is required to determine its value in managing the fruit damage and larval infestation risks to meet export market tolerances.