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Societal Impact Statement Using Taro (Colocasia esculenta) as a case study, we examine how perception gaps contribute to negative feedback loops that create or maintain the orphan status of certain crops. For students and researchers seeking uncrowded areas for study, orphan crops and crop‐wild‐relatives offer large open spaces, figuratively and literally. Learning how to see what has not been seen may in turn help us to reduce our global dependence on very few crops, and the risks that follow from this. The combination of climate change and variability and increasing population has painted a dark picture of future food security for many regions in the world where resources are scarce. The key to future food and nutrition security may very well lie in unlocking the untapped potential of orphan and overlooked crops. Summary The present distribution of taro (Colocasia esculenta), as a cultivated food plant, extends from southern to northern Africa, western Asia to eastern Asia, throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands, and through the Americas, from the USA to Brazil. Despite its vast geographical range, high nutritional value, and considerable trade as a fresh and processed crop, there has been relatively little interest in taro and its wild relatives among research funding agencies, and little effective or large‐scale assessment of production, trade and usage. Given the proven ability of this crop to grow under diverse climatic regimes, from the equatorial tropics to northern and southern temperate zones it may be useful to consider perception gaps that contribute to disregard of the crop. Here we suggest and discuss a range of perception gaps that together may explain the status of taro as an orphan crop. Perception gaps exist because of many factors: dogma, linguistic diversity, social biases, under‐research, limited physical visibility of living wild populations, poor archaeological visibility, missing production numbers and inaccurate distribution maps. These contributing factors are shared, to lesser or greater extent, by many other orphan crops, but the disjunction between actual utilization (significant) and research effort (minimal) may be greater for taro than for most other “orphans”.

Significance Fossil evidence shows that Polynesians introduced the tropical crop taro (Colocasia esculenta) during initial colonization of the subtropical South Pacific islands and temperate New Zealand after 1200 CE, establishing garden ecosystems with similar commensal plants and invertebrates. Sedimentary charcoal and fossil remains indicate how frequent burning and perennial cultivation overcame the ecological constraints for taro production, particularly the temperate forest cover of New Zealand. An increase in short-lived plants, indicating a transition toward higher-intensity production, followed rapid woody forest decline and species extinctions on all islands. The relatively recent fossil records from the subtropical and temperate islands of Polynesia provide unique insights into the ecological processes behind the spread of Neolithic crops into areas marginal for production., Polynesians introduced the tropical crop taro (Colocasia esculenta) to temperate New Zealand after 1280 CE, but evidence for its cultivation is limited. This contrasts with the abundant evidence for big game hunting, raising longstanding questions of the initial economic and ecological importance of crop production. Here we compare fossil data from wetland sedimentary deposits indicative of taro and leaf vegetable (including Sonchus and Rorippa spp.) cultivation from Ahuahu, a northern New Zealand offshore island, with Raivavae and Rapa, both subtropical islands in French Polynesia. Preservation of taro pollen on all islands between 1300 CE and 1550 CE indicates perennial cultivation over multiple growing seasons, as plants rarely flower when frequently harvested. The pollen cooccurs with previously undetected fossil remains of extinct trees, as well as many weeds and commensal invertebrates common to tropical Polynesian gardens. Sedimentary charcoal and charred plant remains show that fire use rapidly reduced forest cover, particularly on Ahuahu. Fires were less frequent by 1500 CE on all islands as forest cover diminished, and short-lived plants increased, indicating higher-intensity production. The northern offshore islands of New Zealand were likely preferred sites for early gardens where taro production was briefly attempted, before being supplanted by sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), a more temperate climate-adapted crop, which was later established in large-scale cultivation systems on the mainland after 1500 CE.

Chloroplast (cp) genomes are considered important for the study of lineage-specific molecular evolution, population genetics, and phylogenetics. Our aim here was to elucidate the molecular evolution in cp genomes of species in the Dracunculus clade (Aroideae, Araceae). We report de novo assembled cp genomes for eight species from eight genera and also retrieved cp genomes of four species from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The cp genomes varied in size from 162,424 bp to 176,835 bp. Large Single Copy (LSC) region ranged in size from 87,141 bp to 95,475 bp; Small Single Copy (SSC) from 14,338 bp to 23,981 bp; and Inverted Repeats (IRa and IRb) from 25,131 bp to 32,708 bp. The expansion in inverted repeats led to duplication of ycf1 genes in four species. The genera showed high similarity in gene content and yielded 113 unique genes (79 protein-coding, 4 rRNA, and 30 tRNA genes). Codon usage, amino acid frequency, RNA editing sites, microsatellites repeats, transition and transversion substitutions, and synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions were also similar across the clade. A previous study reported deletion of ycf1, accD, psbE, trnL-CAA, and trnG-GCC genes in four Amorphophallus species. Our study supports conservative structure of cp genomes in the Dracunculus clade including Amorphophallus species and does not support gene deletion mentioned above. We also report suitable polymorphic loci based on comparative analyses of Dracunculus clade species, which could be useful for phylogenetic inference. Overall, the current study broad our knowledge about the molecular evolution of chloroplast genome in aroids.

As an ancient clonal root and leaf crop, taro (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae) is highly polymorphic with uncertain genetic and geographic origins. We explored chloroplast DNA diversity in cultivated and wild taros, and closely related wild taxa, and found cultivated taro to be polyphyletic, with tropical and temperate clades that appear to originate in Southeast Asia sensu lato. A third clade was found exclusively in wild populations from Southeast Asia to Australia and Papua New Guinea. Our findings do not support the hypothesis of taro domestication in Papua New Guinea, despite archaeological evidence for early use or cultivation there, and the presence of apparently natural wild populations in the region (Australia and Papua New Guinea)., As an ancient clonal root and leaf crop, taro (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae) is highly polymorphic with uncertain genetic and geographic origins. We explored chloroplast DNA variation in wild and cultivated taros and other Colocasia species and found cultivated taro to be polyphyletic, with tropical and temperate clades originating in Southeast Asia. A third clade was found exclusively in wild populations from Southeast Asia to Australia and Papua New Guinea.

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in health behaviors and outcomes of higher education (college) students following graduation. Undergraduate students (n = 206) enrolled at a large, northeastern United States university in general education health and wellness courses were assessed pre and post-graduation. Participants self-reported their demographics, physical activity behaviors, dietary behaviors, sleep, and stress pre and post-graduation via an online survey. Paired sample t-tests examined changes health behaviors pre and post-graduation. Following graduation, fruit and vegetable consumption increased significantly, moderate physical activity declined significantly, and both vigorous physical activity and energy expenditure, as well as weight remained stable. There was a significant reduction in stress, for men but not women, and, an increase in restful nights of sleep among women but not men. College students tended to maintain the seemingly healthy lifestyles they had as students during the period immediately following graduation. Findings highlight the value of general health and wellness courses within college given vigorous physical activity and energy expenditure did not decline following graduation.

We welcome Barber’s (1) comments and are grateful for the opportunity to respond. Our study of wetland taro ( Colocasia esculenta ) gardens during the initial colonization period (ICP) (1200 to 1500 CE) in New Zealand did not overlook the evidence from the Aupouri Peninsula (2⇓–4). We agree that gardens were probably established on mainland New Zealand, within the climate envelope shown in figure 1 of our paper (4), but in areas that lacked large-statured forests at Polynesian arrival. However, the fossil evidence from Motutangi does not meet the 3 criteria for defining ICP taro gardens met in our study of Ahuahu and subtropical French Polynesia: [↵][1]1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: matthew.prebble{at}anu.edu.au. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Background An ethnobotanical study on local cuisine of Sasak tribe in Lombok Island was carried out, as a kind of effort of providing written record of culinary culture in some region of Indonesia. The cuisine studied included meals, snacks, and beverages that have been consumed by Sasak people from generation to generation. Objective The aims of this study are to explore the local knowledge in utilising and managing plants resources in Sasak cuisine, and to analyze the perceptions and concepts related to food and eating of Sasak people. Methods Data were collected through direct observation, participatory-observation, interviews and literature review. Results In total 151 types of consumption were recorded, consisting of 69 meals, 71 snacks, and 11 beverages. These were prepared with 111 plants species belonging to 91 genera and 43 families. Fabaceae contributed the highest number of species to the cuisine. Cocos nucifera had the highest Index of Cultural Significance value and highest number of reported uses. Apparently traditional social and cultural values are still closely associated with Sasak food and eating. Conclusion Sasak people interpret their food not only as a material for supporting life, but also as a means to maintain a good balance between humans, environment, and spiritual needs.

Stilt structures in the inter-tidal zone or over shallow water on fringing reefs are widely accepted as a feature of settlements of the Lapita cultural complex in Near Oceania. Claims for similar structures in a pre-Lapita context at the Apalo site in the Arawe Islands, New Britain, Papua New Guinea, have been queried on several grounds. Re-evaluation of the Apalo evidence, together with 10 additional AMS radiocarbon dates, establishes human activity associated with some form of structure and possibly with a ground stone axe about 400–500 years before the Lapita pottery occupation. The paucity of occupational refuse suggests a non-residential structure perhaps associated with water transport. Comparisons with the older Dongan midden site in the Sepik-Ramu basin suggest stilt structures were probably used there as well. An apparent shift in depositional processes between the pre-Lapita and Lapita use of Apalo could reflect changed sea conditions arising from increased ENSO activity.

Taro, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, is a vegetable and starchy root crop cultivated in Asia, Oceania, the Americas, Africa, and the Mediterranean. Very little is known about its early history in the Mediterranean, which previous authors have sought to trace through Classical (Greek and Latin) texts that record the name colocasia (including cognates) from the 3rd century BC onwards. In ancient literature, however, this name also refers to the sacred lotus, Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. and its edible rhizome. Like taro, lotus is an alien introduction to the Mediterranean, and there has been considerable confusion regarding the true identity of plants referred to as colocasia in ancient literature. Another early name used to indicate taro was arum, a name already attested from the 4th century BC. Today, this name refers to Arum, an aroid genus native to West Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean. Our aim is to explore historical references to taro in order to clarify when and through which routes this plant reached the Mediterranean. To investigate Greek and Latin texts, we performed a search using the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) and the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (TLL), plus commentaries and English and French translations of original texts. Results show that while in the early Greek and Latin literature the name kolokasia (Greek κολοκάσια) and its Latin equivalent colocasia refer to Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., after the 4th century AD a poorly understood linguistic shift occurs, and colocasia becomes the name for taro. We also found that aron (Greek ἄρον) and its Latin equivalent arum are names used to indicate taro from the 3rd century BC and possibly earlier.

Recently, we reported the chloroplast genome-wide association of oligonucleotide repeats, indels and nucleotide substitutions in aroid chloroplast genomes. We hypothesized that the distribution of oligonucleotide repeat sequences in a single representative genome can be used to identify mutational hotspots and loci suitable for population genetic, phylogenetic and phylogeographic studies. Using information on the location of oligonucleotide repeats in the chloroplast genome of taro (Colocasia esculenta), we designed 30 primer pairs to amplify and sequence polymorphic loci. The primers have been tested in a range of intra-specific to intergeneric comparisons, including ten taro samples (Colocasia esculenta) from diverse geographical locations, four other Colocasia species (C. affinis, C. fallax, C. formosana, C. gigantea) and three other aroid genera (represented by Remusatia vivipara, Alocasia brisbanensis and Amorphophallus konjac). Multiple sequence alignments for the intra-specific comparison revealed nucleotide substitutions (point mutations) at all 30 loci and microsatellite polymorphisms at 14 loci. The primer pairs reported here reveal levels of genetic variation suitable for high-resolution phylogeographic and evolutionary studies of taro and other closely related aroids. Our results confirm that information on repeat distribution can be used to identify loci suitable for such studies, and we expect that this approach can be used in other plant groups.

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a vegetatively propagated, starchy root crop cultivated in tropical to temperate regions of the world. Wild forms of taro are distributed from India to southern China, Australia and Melanesia. They are widely known wild food or fodder sources, including in Aboriginal Australia, so it is unclear to what extent wild populations have been dispersed by humans, or naturally via insect-borne pollen and seed dispersal by birds or other animals. In Australia, pollinators and seedlings of taro have not been reported, and a key question is whether or not the wild taro there can breed naturally. Here we report field observations of flowering, fruit set, and an insect pollinator (Colocasiomyia, pupal stage), in a historically significant wild taro population at Hopevale in northern Queensland. The observed pupa is congeneric with two pollinating fly species that have a highly specialised, probably coevolutionary, relationship with taro in neighbouring Papua New Guinea. The field observations suggested the possibility of natural breeding at Hopevale. By analyzing microsatellite diversity within the Hopevale taro population, we found high genetic variation overall, indicative of multiple founding individuals. Two sublocations showed low genetic diversity and strongly negative inbreeding coefficients, consistent with predominantly clonal (vegetative) reproduction. A third sublocation showed high genetic diversity and a weakly negative inbreeding coefficient, indicative of sexual reproduction. This difference between sublocations may relate to microenvironmental conditions that favour seedling establishment in some parts of the site. The data constitute the first demonstration that natural breeding and population spread occurs in Australian wild taro.

A characteristic feature of eukaryote and prokaryote genomes is the co-occurrence of nucleotide substitution and insertion/deletion (indel) mutations. Although similar observations have also been made for chloroplast DNA, genome-wide associations have not been reported. We determined the chloroplast genome sequences for two morphotypes of taro (Colocasia esculenta; family Araceae) and compared these with four publicly available aroid chloroplast genomes. Here, we report the extent of genome-wide association between direct and inverted repeats, indels, and substitutions in these aroid chloroplast genomes. We suggest that alternative but not mutually exclusive hypotheses explain the mutational dynamics of chloroplast genome evolution.

The cultivated taro (Colocasia esculenta) is likely to have originated as anatural species in Southeast Asia, where most of its nearest wild relatives aredistributed. Previous authors have noted wildtype taros in Southeast Asia,but little has been said about their habitat range, geographical distribution,and uses. Here we report results from an ethnobotanical survey of wildtypetaros in central and lower Myanmar.Wildtype taros in Myanmar are abundant and widespread, and the acridleaves are very commonly cooked with broken rice as a fodder for domesticpigs. Less commonly, the leaves, inflorescences and stolons are eaten bypeople, after preparation in ways that remove most acridity. Although localresidents almost always state that wildtype taros are never planted, the plantsappear to be most abundant in the vicinity of human settlement.The present close association between people, wildtype taros, and pigsmay be significant for discussions of the domestication of taro and pig, andthe history of agriculture in Southeast Asia., サトイモの栽培種(Colocasia esculenta)は,その野生近似種の多くが東南アジアに分布し,そこに起源すると思われる。従来の研究者たちも,東南アジァのサトイモ野生種に着目してはいたが,その生育環境や地理的分布,そして人による利用の形態については,ほとんど注意を払ってこなかった。この研究では,ミャンマー中央および低地でおこなった,サトイモの野生種に関する民族植物学的調査の結果を報告することを目的とする。ミャンマーでは,サトイモの野生種が豊かにかつ広範囲に生息し,そのえぐ味のある葉は,くず米と共に煮られ,飼いブタの飼料として一般的に利用されている。それほど一般的ではないが,葉や花軸,葡旬茎が,さまざまなやり方でアク抜きされたうえで,人の食用に供される場合もある。住民によると野生のサトイモを移植することはないというが,サトイモ野生種がとくに集落の周辺に多く分布していることが観察されている。こうした,人々とタロイモ野生種,そしてブタのあいだに見られる強い結びつきは,東南アジアでのタロイモとブタの馴化の問題を考えるうえで,重要な論点を提示するといえる。

Taro planthoppers (Tarophagus spp.) may be associated exclusively or primarily with taro (Colocasia esculenta), and the geographical distribution of T. proserpina provides circumstantial evidence that taro is native to the Sahul continental region (as well as being native to Sunda). T. colocasiae (Matsumura) (Asche and Wilson 1989a,b) is reported here for the first time in Australia, and the genus Tarophagus is reported for the first time on the wildtype form of taro (C. esculenta). Three species of taro plant hopper are present in Asia and the Pacific. T. proserpina has a relatively narrow distribution extending from eastern New Guinea to Polynesia (Remote Oceania). This distribution adds support to the suggestion that Polynesian taros are derived from a Melanesian taro gene pool. It is tentatively suggested that different Tarophagus species evolved in association with different taro gene pools, before the domestication of taro in multiple regions within Asia and the Pacific. Plant viruses associated with taro and Tarophagus are also discussed.

Rind and seeds of a gourd discovered at the Kana site in Papua New Guinea are identified as remains of Benincasa hispida. The origins and dispersal of this species are discussed, with reference to the bottle gourd, Lagenaria siceraria, another cucurbit that is widespread in Asia and the Pacific. The possible domestic status of B. hispida at the Kana site is discussed.

This chapter talks about infectious agents that have the potential to be transmitted via swine xenografts. These infectious agents fall into three categories: traditional zoonotic organisms, swine-specific organisms and undiscovered swine-specific organisms. Risk of disease transmission via xenografts and the public health aspects of porcine xenotransplantation are discussed. The chapter addresses the history, occurrence, etiology, epidemiology, mode of transmission, animal infection, diagnosis, prevention and control, human infection, and public health aspects of each specific disease. The intention is to narrow the scope of the review to describe the occurrence, the epidemiology, and the clinical signs of the traditional zoonotic diseases in the pig. The knowledge of the epidemiology, especially mode of transmission, in the pig itself is essential for the design of facilities and the establishment of biosafety and disease control programs that can minimize the risk of transmitting infectious disease agents via swine xenografts. The majority of affected herds may have no recognizable signs. Bratislava is now recognized as the most common swine-maintained serovar. Carrier pigs are probably the most common route of introduction, with infected replacement gilts or boars being one of the most important means of introducing infection. For those swine-specific organisms that are sequestered in tissues such as gastrointestinal tract, tonsil, and upper respiratory tract of clinically healthy donors, the risk of being transmitted via xenografts is probably minimal.

Plant remains in the Arawe Islands were found preserved in waterlogged beach sediments. Remnants of edible fruit and wild nuts were found together with Lapita pottery, stone artifacts, and other evidence of human settlement. Previous discoveries of fruit and nut remains in Lapita pottery sites have been interpreted as evidence for an arboricultural complex based on a variety of tree species. Here we report direct evidence for plant use, but are unable to recognise any particular system of plant cultivation or harvest. All the genera and species recognised in the Arawe plant remains are known to enter modern beach drift by natural processes, from wild and cultivated sources. The archaeological assemblages pose intriguing problems for interpreting the history of plant use and domestication.

Organic residue on a stone artefact recovered from the Makekur Lapita site (FOH) on Arawe Island in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, was sampled and dated. The residue is identified as endocarp fragments of a Canarium species nutshell, most likely Canarium indicum L. The artefact, which is made from coralline limestone, is interpreted as a nut-cracking anvil. AMS dating places its use at approximately 2800 calBP, in Middle-Late Lapita times, and provides the first direct confirmation of Lapita-age use of nut-cracking tools. The careful shaping of the tool, combined with ethnographic comparisons, suggests that it was made and used for preparation of special food, possibly for feasting associated with ritual or other ceremonial activities.

Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent) is a dioecious tree native to East Asia and mainland Southeast-Asia, introduced prehistorically to Polynesia as a source of bark fiber by Austronesian-speaking voyagers. In Oceania, trees are coppiced and harvested for production of bark-cloth, so flowering is generally unknown. A survey of botanical records of paper mulberry revealed a distributional disjunction: the tree is apparently absent in Borneo and the Philippines. A subsequent study of chloroplast haplotypes linked paper mulberry of Remote Oceania directly to a population in southern Taiwan, distinct from known populations in mainland Southeast-Asia.We describe the optimization and use of a DNA marker designed to identify sex in paper mulberry. We used this marker to determine the sex distribution in selected localities across Asia, Near and Remote Oceania. We also characterized all samples using the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequence (ITS) in order to relate results to a previous survey of ITS diversity.In Near and Remote Oceania, contemporary paper mulberry plants are all female with the exception of Hawaii, where plants of both sexes are found. In its natural range in Asia, male and female plants are found, as expected. Male plants in Hawaii display an East Asian ITS genotype, consistent with modern introduction, while females in Remote Oceania share a distinctive variant.Most paper mulberry plants now present in the Pacific appear to be descended from female clones introduced prehistorically. In Hawaii, the presence of male and female plants is thought to reflect a dual origin, one a prehistoric female introduction and the other a modern male introduction by Japanese/Chinese immigrants. If only female clones were dispersed from a source-region in Taiwan, this may explain the absence of botanical records and breeding populations in the Philippines and Borneo, and Remote Oceania.

Background Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent) is a dioecious tree native to East Asia and mainland Southeast-Asia, introduced prehistorically to Polynesia as a source of bark fiber by Austronesian-speaking voyagers. In Oceania, trees are coppiced and harvested for production of bark-cloth, so flowering is generally unknown. A survey of botanical records of paper mulberry revealed a distributional disjunction: the tree is apparently absent in Borneo and the Philippines. A subsequent study of chloroplast haplotypes linked paper mulberry of Remote Oceania directly to a population in southern Taiwan, distinct from known populations in mainland Southeast-Asia. Methodology We describe the optimization and use of a DNA marker designed to identify sex in paper mulberry. We used this marker to determine the sex distribution in selected localities across Asia, Near and Remote Oceania. We also characterized all samples using the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequence (ITS) in order to relate results to a previous survey of ITS diversity. Results In Near and Remote Oceania, contemporary paper mulberry plants are all female with the exception of Hawaii, where plants of both sexes are found. In its natural range in Asia, male and female plants are found, as expected. Male plants in Hawaii display an East Asian ITS genotype, consistent with modern introduction, while females in Remote Oceania share a distinctive variant. Conclusions Most paper mulberry plants now present in the Pacific appear to be descended from female clones introduced prehistorically. In Hawaii, the presence of male and female plants is thought to reflect a dual origin, one a prehistoric female introduction and the other a modern male introduction by Japanese/Chinese immigrants. If only female clones were dispersed from a source-region in Taiwan, this may explain the absence of botanical records and breeding populations in the Philippines and Borneo, and Remote Oceania.

Methods used by the National Animal Disease Center to test fetal calf serum for contamination with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and antibodies against BVDV are described. Using those methods, virus was isolated from 332 of 1,608 (20.6%) lots of raw fetal calf serum obtained specifically for the Center and 93 of 190 (49%) lots of commercially available fetal calf serum. Virus neutralization and immunoperoxidase staining tests were used to detect antibodies against BVDV in 224 of the 1,608 (13.9%) lots of raw fetal calf serum. Both BVDV and antibodies against BVDV were detected in 50 lots of raw serum. The molecular specificity of antibodies against BVDV was determined by radioimmunoprecipitation. Lots of fetal calf serum that contained BVDV-specific antibodies that did not neutralize virus were identified.

Total chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) from Solanum incanum, a wild relative of eggplant, was used to probe total DNA of Solanum melongena (eggplant). The DNA fragments detected were the same as observed using purified chloroplast DNA. Chloroplast DNAs were also analysed for nine species of Solanum that are cross-compatible with eggplant: S. aethiopicum, S. anguivi, S. gilo, S. incanum, S. indicum, S. integrifolium, S. macrocarpon, S. olivare and S. panduriforme.

The origins, domestication and dispersal of taro are outlined, as far as they are known, and recent surveys of genetic variation are reviewed. These surveys have established that taro, an ancient root crop in Asia, Africa and the Pacific, is genetically very diverse. Across the full geographical range of taro, very little is known about what forms of taro are grown for what economic and culinary purposes. Ethnographic research on taro as a food, and the preservation of culinary knowledge associated with taro, are needed for the preservation of genetic diversity in this crop. Much will depend on how the crop is developed and promoted commercially, and on active interest and support for the crop among local growers, cooks, distributors and consumers. 本論文は、現在明らかになっている限りのサトイモの起 源、栽培、拡散について概説し、遺伝的多様性に関する 最新の調査結果を検討している。これら最新の調査によ り、アジア、アフリカ、太平洋諸島で古くから栽培され てきた根菜作物であるサトイモが遺伝子的に非常に多様 であることが立証されてきた。サトイモが分布する全地 理的範囲においても、どんな品種のサトイモがいかなる 経済的目的、料理目的で栽培されているのかほとんど知 られていない。遺伝的多様性を持続させるためには、食 物としてのサトイモについての民族学的調査、サトイモ 関連料理の知識の保存は不可欠であるが、サトイモをい かに開発し商品として促進するか、また地元栽培者、料 理関係者、卸業者、消費者が積極的に関心を持ち支援す ることに依拠するところが非常に大きいであろう。

The economics of agroforestry systems can be approached in a purely analytical fashion with mathematical equations and diagrams explaining the principles of analysis. This paper argues that such an approach may be useful for teaching purposes but has little practical relevance. There is an urgent need for a practical tool with which multi-disciplinary teams can asses agroforestry systems. The simplest and most common approaches to the economic analysis of farm management problems are various forms of budgeting. Recent advances in micro-computer technology provide the means by which the principles of partial budgeting can be adapted to the needs of agroforestry taking account of its multiple component nature, seasonal variability and long life span. The paper sets out the specifications for such an approach and indicates how it might be used.