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The Drosophila eggshell consists of three major proteinaceous layers: the vitelline membrane, the inner chorionic layer, and the outer endochorion. During the latter stages of oogenesis, the proteins that comprise these layers are synthesized and secreted by epithelial follicle cells which surround the maturing oocyte. While there is considerable knowledge of the structural units which comprise the eggshell layers, there is little knowledge of how individual proteins function or interact with one another to form the structure. Immunoelectron microscopy was used to follow the distribution of four different eggshell proteins in the assembling and mature eggshell. sV23 and sV17, follicle cell proteins synthesized during the early stages of eggshell formation (stages 8-10), were distributed within the vitelline membrane layer at all stages. Despite marked temporal differences in their accumulation profiles, s36 and s18, putative chorion proteins, were similarly distributed throughout the floor, pillars, and roof of the endochorion. Although the vitelline membrane appears to be morphologically complete by stage 11, developmental Western blots and immunolocalization data indicate that molecular dynamism persists within the layer throughout the subsequent choriogenic stages. During early chorion formation the vitelline membrane appears to act as a reservoir for chorion proteins since s36 was found predominantly in the vitelline membrane layer of stage 12 egg chambers. During the late choriogenic stages (13-14), both sV17 and sV23 are processed to smaller derivatives. Interactions between the eggshell layers were suggested by ultrastructural analysis of a sV93 protein null mutant which showed that the structural integrity of the outer chorion is dependent upon the presence of a vitelline membrane component.

Background: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a complex disease partly explained by the effects of individual gene variants on sarcomeric protein biomechanics. At the cellular level, HCM mutations most commonly enhance force production, leading to higher energy demands. Despite significant advances in elucidating sarcomeric structure-function relationships, there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms that link altered cardiac energetics to HCM phenotypes. In this work, we test the hypothesis that changes in cardiac energetics represent a common pathophysiologic pathway in HCM., Methods: We performed a comprehensive multiomics profile of the molecular (transcripts, metabolites, and complex lipids), ultrastructural, and functional components of HCM energetics using myocardial samples from 27 HCM patients and 13 normal controls (donor hearts)., Results: Integrated omics analysis revealed alterations in a wide array of biochemical pathways with major dysregulation in fatty acid metabolism, reduction of acylcarnitines, and accumulation of free fatty acids. HCM hearts showed evidence of global energetic decompensation manifested by a decrease in high energy phosphate metabolites (ATP, ADP, and phosphocreatine) and a reduction in mitochondrial genes involved in creatine kinase and ATP synthesis. Accompanying these metabolic derangements, electron microscopy showed an increased fraction of severely damaged mitochondria with reduced cristae density, coinciding with reduced citrate synthase activity and mitochondrial oxidative respiration. These mitochondrial abnormalities were associated with elevated reactive oxygen species and reduced antioxidant defenses. However, despite significant mitochondrial injury, HCM hearts failed to upregulate mitophagic clearance., Conclusions: Overall, our findings suggest that perturbed metabolic signaling and mitochondrial dysfunction are common pathogenic mechanisms in patients with HCM. These results highlight potential new drug targets for attenuation of the clinical disease through improving metabolic function and reducing mitochondrial injury.

Mammalian spermiogenesis is a remarkable cellular transformation, during which round spermatids elongate into chromatin-condensed spermatozoa. The signaling pathways that coordinate this process are not well understood, and we demonstrate here that homeodomain-interacting protein kinase 4 (HIPK4) is essential for spermiogenesis and male fertility in mice. HIPK4 is predominantly expressed in round and early elongating spermatids, and Hipk4 knockout males are sterile, exhibiting phenotypes consistent with oligoasthenoteratozoospermia. Hipk4 mutant sperm have reduced oocyte binding and are incompetent for in vitro fertilization, but they can still produce viable offspring via intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Optical and electron microscopy of HIPK4-null male germ cells reveals defects in the filamentous actin (F-actin)-scaffolded acroplaxome during spermatid elongation and abnormal head morphologies in mature spermatozoa. We further observe that HIPK4 overexpression induces branched F-actin structures in cultured fibroblasts and that HIPK4 deficiency alters the subcellular distribution of an F-actin capping protein in the testis, supporting a role for this kinase in cytoskeleton remodeling. Our findings establish HIPK4 as an essential regulator of sperm head shaping and potential target for male contraception., Competing Interests: JC JAC has served as a consultant for Vibliome Therapeutics, which is developing small-molecule inhibitors of HIPK4 and other kinases, and he is now a Principal Scientist at the company. PR PGR is an employee of Thermo Fisher Scientific. ZH, AL, CA, RL, JE, JP, BB, YL, JL, HZ No competing interests declared, JC JKC serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Vibliome Therapeutics., (© 2020, Crapster et al.)

Health organizations aim to identify patients with high fall risk in the different attention scenarios in order to provide safety and quality care. In order to address this issue, we designed an assessment tool that surveys fall risk through three questions in self-service terminals in the outpatient setting. Our objectives in this article are to describe the implementation process. A cross sectional design was used for the pilot (between October and November 2018). The issued tickets rate with high fall risk (defined as 2/3 positive responses) was 34.3%. Some adjustments needed to be done because some patients did not have true risk criteria due to self-report. We conclude that this tool will allow quicker identification of patients with true high risk. Effective prevention strategies will be necessary to improve safety after risk fall identification.

Positive-stranded RNA viruses extensively remodel host cell architecture to enable viral replication. Here, we examined the poorly understood formation of specialized membrane compartments that are critical sites for the synthesis of the viral genome. We show that the replication compartments (RCs) of enteroviruses are created through novel membrane contact sites that recruit host lipid droplets (LDs) to the RCs. Viral proteins tether the RCs to the LDs and interact with the host lipolysis machinery to enable transfer of fatty acids from LDs, thereby providing lipids essential for RC biogenesis. Inhibiting the formation of the membrane contact sites between LDs and RCs or inhibition of the lipolysis pathway disrupts RC biogenesis and enterovirus replication. Our data illuminate mechanistic and functional aspects of organelle remodeling in viral infection and establish that pharmacological targeting of contact sites linking viral and host compartments is a potential strategy for antiviral development., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Whereas standard transmission electron microscopy studies are unable to preserve the native state of chemically reactive and beam-sensitive battery materials after operation, such materials remain pristine at cryogenic conditions. It is then possible to atomically resolve individual lithium metal atoms and their interface with the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). We observe that dendrites in carbonate-based electrolytes grow along the <111> (preferred), <110>, or <211> directions as faceted, single-crystalline nanowires. These growth directions can change at kinks with no observable crystallographic defect. Furthermore, we reveal distinct SEI nanostructures formed in different electrolytes., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works.)

The accumulation of protein aggregates is a common pathological hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases. However, we do not fully understand how aggregates are formed or the complex network of chaperones, proteasomes and other regulatory factors involved in their clearance. Here, we report a chemically controllable fluorescent protein that enables us to rapidly produce small aggregates inside living cells on the order of seconds, as well as monitor the movement and coalescence of individual aggregates into larger structures. This method can be applied to diverse experimental systems, including live animals, and may prove valuable for understanding cellular responses and diseases associated with protein aggregates.

Brain endothelial cells form a paracellular and transcellular barrier to many blood-borne solutes via tight junctions (TJs) and scarce endocytotic vesicles. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a pivotal role in the healthy and diseased CNS. BBB damage after ischemic stroke contributes to increased mortality, yet the contributions of paracellular and transcellular mechanisms to this process in vivo are unknown. We have created a transgenic mouse strain whose endothelial TJs are labeled with eGFP and have imaged dynamic TJ changes and fluorescent tracer leakage across the BBB in vivo, using two-photon microscopy in the t-MCAO stroke model. Although barrier function is impaired as early as 6 hr after stroke, TJs display profound structural defects only after 2 days. Conversely, the number of endothelial caveolae and transcytosis rate increase as early as 6 hr after stroke. Therefore, stepwise impairment of transcellular followed by paracellular barrier mechanisms accounts for the BBB deficits in stroke., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In neuronal processes, microtubules (MTs) provide structural support and serve as tracks for molecular motors. While it is known that neuronal MTs are more stable than MTs in non-neuronal cells, the molecular mechanisms underlying this stability are not fully understood. In this study, we used live fluorescence microscopy to show that the C. elegans CAMSAP protein PTRN-1 localizes to puncta along neuronal processes, stabilizes MT foci, and promotes MT polymerization in neurites. Electron microscopy revealed that ptrn-1 null mutants have fewer MTs and abnormal MT organization in the PLM neuron. Animals grown with a MT depolymerizing drug caused synthetic defects in neurite branching in the absence of ptrn-1 function, indicating that PTRN-1 promotes MT stability. Further, ptrn-1 null mutants exhibited aberrant neurite morphology and synaptic vesicle localization that is partially dependent on dlk-1. Our results suggest that PTRN-1 represents an important mechanism for promoting MT stability in neurons. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01498.001.

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a human alphaherpesvirus that causes varicella (chickenpox) and herpes zoster (shingles). Like all herpesviruses, the VZV DNA genome is replicated in the nucleus and packaged into nucleocapsids that must egress across the nuclear membrane for incorporation into virus particles in the cytoplasm. Our recent work showed that VZV nucleocapsids are sequestered in nuclear cages formed from promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) in vitro and in human dorsal root ganglia and skin xenografts in vivo. We sought a method to determine the three-dimensional (3D) distribution of nucleocapsids in the nuclei of herpesvirus-infected cells as well as the 3D shape, volume and ultrastructure of these unique PML subnuclear domains. Here we report the development of a novel 3D imaging and reconstruction strategy that we term Serial Section Array-Scanning Electron Microscopy (SSA-SEM) and its application to the analysis of VZV-infected cells and these nuclear PML cages. We show that SSA-SEM permits large volume imaging and 3D reconstruction at a resolution sufficient to localize, count and distinguish different types of VZV nucleocapsids and to visualize complete PML cages. This method allowed a quantitative determination of how many nucleocapsids can be sequestered within individual PML cages (sequestration capacity), what proportion of nucleocapsids are entrapped in single nuclei (sequestration efficiency) and revealed the ultrastructural detail of the PML cages. More than 98% of all nucleocapsids in reconstructed nuclear volumes were contained in PML cages and single PML cages sequestered up to 2,780 nucleocapsids, which were shown by electron tomography to be embedded and cross-linked by an filamentous electron-dense meshwork within these unique subnuclear domains. This SSA-SEM analysis extends our recent characterization of PML cages and provides a proof of concept for this new strategy to investigate events during virion assembly at the single cell level.

The herpesviruses, like most other DNA viruses, replicate in the host cell nucleus. Subnuclear domains known as promyelocytic leukemia protein nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), or ND10 bodies, have been implicated in restricting early herpesviral gene expression. These viruses have evolved countermeasures to disperse PML-NBs, as shown in cells infected in vitro, but information about the fate of PML-NBs and their functions in herpesvirus infected cells in vivo is limited. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is an alphaherpesvirus with tropism for skin, lymphocytes and sensory ganglia, where it establishes latency. Here, we identify large PML-NBs that sequester newly assembled nucleocapsids (NC) in neurons and satellite cells of human dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and skin cells infected with VZV in vivo. Quantitative immuno-electron microscopy revealed that these distinctive nuclear bodies consisted of PML fibers forming spherical cages that enclosed mature and immature VZV NCs. Of six PML isoforms, only PML IV promoted the sequestration of NCs. PML IV significantly inhibited viral infection and interacted with the ORF23 capsid surface protein, which was identified as a target for PML-mediated NC sequestration. The unique PML IV C-terminal domain was required for both capsid entrapment and antiviral activity. Similar large PML-NBs, termed clastosomes, sequester aberrant polyglutamine (polyQ) proteins, such as Huntingtin (Htt), in several neurodegenerative disorders. We found that PML IV cages co-sequester HttQ72 and ORF23 protein in VZV infected cells. Our data show that PML cages contribute to the intrinsic antiviral defense by sensing and entrapping VZV nucleocapsids, thereby preventing their nuclear egress and inhibiting formation of infectious virus particles. The efficient sequestration of virion capsids in PML cages appears to be the outcome of a basic cytoprotective function of this distinctive category of PML-NBs in sensing and safely containing nuclear aggregates of aberrant proteins.

Developmental axon pruning is widely used in constructing the nervous system. Accordingly, diverse mechanisms are likely employed for various forms of axon pruning. In the Drosophila mushroom bodies (MB), gamma neurons initially extend axon branches into both the dorsal and medial MB axon lobes in larvae. Through a well-orchestrated set of developmental events during metamorphosis, axon branches to both lobes degenerate prior to the formation of adult connections. Here, we analyze ultrastructural changes underlying axon pruning by using a genetically encoded electron microscopic (EM) marker to selectively label gamma neurons. By inhibiting axon pruning in combination with the use of this EM marker, we demonstrate a causal link between observed cellular events and axon pruning. These events include changes in axon ultrastructure, synaptic degeneration, and engulfment of degenerating axon fragments by glia for their subsequent breakdown via the endosomal-lysosomal pathway. Interestingly, glia selectively invade MB axon lobes at the onset of metamorphosis; this increase in cell number is independent of axon fragmentation. Our study reveals a key role for glia in the removal of axon fragments during developmental axon pruning.

In many insects, development of the oocyte arrests temporarily just before vitellogenesis, the period when vitellogenins (yolk proteins) accumulate in the oocyte. Following hormonal and environmental cues, development of the oocyte resumes, and endocytosis of vitellogenins begins. An essential component of yolk uptake is the vitellogenin receptor. In this report, we describe the ovarian expression pattern and subcellular localization of the mRNA and protein encoded by the Drosophila melanogaster vitellogenin receptor gene yolkless (yl). yl RNA and protein are both expressed very early during the development of the oocyte, long before vitellogenesis begins. RNA in situ hybridization and lacZ reporter analyses show that yl RNA is synthesized by the germ line nurse cells and then transported to the oocyte. Yl protein is evenly distributed throughout the oocyte during the previtellogenic stages of oogenesis, demonstrating that the failure to take up yolk in these early stage oocyte is not due to the absence of the receptor. The transition to the vitellogenic stages is marked by the accumulation of yolk via clathrin-coated vesicles. After this transition, yolk protein receptor levels increase markedly at the cortex of the egg. Consistent with its role in yolk uptake, immunogold labeling of the receptor reveals Yl in endocytic structures at the cortex of wild-type vitellogenic oocytes. In addition, shortly after the inception of yolk uptake, we find multivesicular bodies where the yolk and receptor are distinctly partitioned. By the end of vitellogenesis, the receptor localizes predominantly to the cortex of the oocyte. However, during oogenesis in yl mutants that express full-length protein yet fail to incorporate yolk proteins, the receptor remains evenly distributed throughout the oocyte.