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Workplace digitalization created a sea change in work practices and it altered the situation of older workers. Digitalization entails the increased use of digital technologies, such as computers and online services. Older workers often possess limited digital skills, which may put their labor market participation at risk. Previous studies began exploring how older workers fare when their workplaces are digitalizing. However, the research field is still emerging and remains fragmented. This article comprises a systematic literature review that takes inventory of what we currently know about older workers in digitalizing workplaces. It demonstrates that older workers experience the digitalization of their workplaces in various areas, reaching from health monitoring to work arrangements. Interestingly, challenges and opportunities emerge in each area affected. This Janus-faced situation underlines the complexity of consequences, and it raises questions about social inequalities in these consequences. The work environment plays a crucial role in shaping how older workers experience workplace digitalization. It shapes which options for adaptation they have, and to which degree they can act on these options. This circumstance makes workplaces an excellent starting point for interventions. Country-characteristics likewise exert an influence. While characteristics such as retirement regulations are purposefully modified for intervention, other characteristics, such as culture, are not. This circumstance limits governmental options for shaping the situation of older workers in digitalizing workplaces. Future research should further explore the situation of older workers in digitalizing workplaces, paying special attention to the theoretical framework and to developments in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. This work was supported by the Joint Committee for Nordic research councils in the Humanities and Social Sciences (decision number 335111).

A challenge posed by the demographic transition is the funding of the welfare state, which, in the Nordic countries, is relatively generous, and will have to serve growing proportions of older citizens in need of home-help services and nursing homes. Both active workers and pensioners pay income tax. However, by keeping older workers in working life for longer, the tax revenue increases while pension expenses for the government decreases. This is a means to meet that challenge and boost the sustainability of the welfare state.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore responses of older workers and of managers to the call from the authorities to extend working life.Design/methodology/approachData are from the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer with interviews with samples of about 750 managers and 1,000 workers each year from 2003. There is no panel data.FindingsOlder workers increasingly prefer to extend their working career. The preferred age for exit has increased from 61 years in 2003 to 66 years in 2018. Managers seem less interested in expanding their older workforce. A majority of managers expressed quite positive conceptions of older workers' performance, but less often they liked to recruit older workers. As an average, managers told that they would hesitate to call in applicants above 58 years of age to job interviews. Age for hesitation is only moderately correlated (r = 0.29) to managers' beliefs about older workers’ performance at work. Thus, the managers' beliefs about older workers’ performance made only a small difference for their willingness to hire older workers.Research limitations/implicationsThe results suggest that counteracting stereotypes, prejudice and age discrimination in working life needs a broad approach, including attention to the affective component of ageism. For research, the measurement of the affective component needs consideration and further exploration.Originality/valueThe article brings data from a distinctive Norwegian context and approaches the rarely studied affective component of ageism in working life.

The current demographic shifts call for prolongation of working life and postponed retirement in most industrialized nations. The success of policies promoting this, depends on a range of factors, one of them is the amount of ageism and age discrimination in working life. This article explores the cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of ageism in working life in Norway. Data are from the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer 2013 consisting of two national samples, one of 1003 employed persons, and one of 751 managers in private and public companies. The results show that the conceptions of older workers are in some ways quite positive, as managers think of workers above age 50 as performing at least as well as younger workers. Yet, managers tend to hesitate to call in applicants in their late 50s, to job interviews. This hesitation is correlated with less liking for recruiting “seniors” and “older workers”, indicating that the affective element of ageism needs attention in prevention of age d...

The aim of this longitudinal qualitative interview study (3 waves of interviews) was to examine the nature of older workers’ late career decision-making processes, including the main drivers and obstacles for prolonging working life or retiring. Late career decision-making is regarded as a process of reflecting and deciding on whether to continue in the current job, change employer, be self-employed, or quit one’s career when approaching retirement. The general results of our interviews revealed that interviewees were positive about continuing to work in their current positions. Job and learning demands were appreciated, and retirement decisions were postponed by 1 year; a consistent theme across the 3 waves of interviews. Only a few changed their opinions completely. Few reported on possibilities for job crafting. Bridge employment was regarded as an alternative to the current employer or as a smooth transition into retirement. Reasons to continue working were multi-faceted; hence, data are presented using a baseline description followed by 5 rich narratives to illustrate the width of the data. Together, these findings suggest that plans for late career and retirement decisions emerge and mature over the years prior to retirement. This study contributes to the understanding of the complex nature of older workers’ late careers, and extends our knowledge of the retirement decision process. The study informs leaders about drivers and obstacles for employees to continue working, and may have implications for future human resource planning and management.

Research on the correspondence between retirement intentions and subsequent behaviour is scarce. We aimed to explore possible associations between retirement intentions and behaviour, using five-year high-quality quantitative panel data on Norwegian senior workers. Retirement intentions operate at different levels of firmness: (a) considerations; (b) preferences; and (c) decisions. Compared to work continuation considerations, a targeted age for retirement improved predictive power whether the target was preferred or decided, and particularly so if the target (i.e.the preferred or decided age of retirement), corresponded with a normative retirement age. Because more workers are able to state a preferred age of retiring than a decision about when to retire, preferences may be better proxies for retirement behaviour than decisions, when the issue is planning for policies. The correspondence between intentions and behaviour varies primarily by health, education and type of work. Older workers with poor health, and workers with low education, often retire earlier than they prefer. Blue-collar workers often retire earlier than they had decided. These findings illustrate the possible effect of labour market resources, not only for senior workers' labour market participation, but also for their opportunities to work up to the age they prefer or had decided. Even for white-collar workers and those in good health, constraints seem to apply when they wish to retire late.

In response to decreasing retirement ages, greater attention is paid to ways of extending older workers' careers without inflicting them with unacceptable strain. Workplace management is supposed to be a key success factor and possible solutions have been coined ‘age management’. The purpose of this article is to assess the extent to which managers accept responsibility for age management issues, how do they perceive their decision latitude (options and constraints) with regard to age management and how does this perceived decision latitude vary in relation to a range of organisational and managerial variables. Data used consist of responses from 672 managers in the public sector. Decision latitude was defined by employees' support, option to reorganise work, sufficient human resources, sufficient budget resources and opportunities to unite age management with efficiency demands. The results showed that management attitudes were the most important predictors, explaining 22.4% of the variance for the decis...

Objectives: While poor health contributes to early work exits, it is less clear how early work exits affect health. This study therefore examines changes in health associated with retirement. Method: Survey data from gainfully employed individuals aged 57 to 66 in 2002 were used to assess changes in health status and behaviors associated with retirement (49%) 5 years later ( N = 546). Results: Compared with workers, retirees were more likely to report improvements in mental health (odds ratio [OR] = 1.67), and less likely to report mental health deteriorations (OR = 0.56). Retirees were more likely to both increase (OR = 2.03) and reduce (OR = 1.87) their alcohol intake, and to increase physical activity (OR = 2.01) and lose weight (OR = 1.75). Discussion: As welfare states aim to extend working life to counteract repercussions of population aging, findings on possible health benefits for retirees may warrant more focus on the pros and cons of a prolonged working life.

This article investigates the impact of working conditions on individual retirement for 270 occupations. It combines survey data for estimates of job strains, census data for occupations, and income and social insurance/security data, for the transition from work to retirement for 19,114 Norwegian employees between the ages of 60 and 67. Retirement was identified by a drop in work-related income and studied both jointly and separately for disability and nondisability retirement, including four types of disability. Data were analyzed using logistic regression (competing risk) “duration” models. Findings indicate that disability retirement is related to physical job strains. Among men, both pathways of early retirement are related to low autonomy in job tasks. Furthermore, psychological job stress may reduce nondisability retirement. The findings are discussed in relation to (1) the prospect of reducing early retirement by changing working conditions and (2) who will gain from certain changes in pension systems.

Solem, P.E. (2005). Ageism, ageing and social participation. Nordisk Psykologi, 57, 1, 47–63. Negative attitudes towards older people, internalised stereotypes and ageism are possible obstacles for social participation. Older people might by being visible in society, represent reminders of the decay of ageing and the finitude of life. Industrialisation and globalisation of economy have in addition made older people less needed. These are examples of social cultural explanations of reduced social activity with age. The relevance of such explanations is supported by the fact that the activity of older persons is less visible the farther out in society we move. Politics and working life are arenas with particularly few older actors. However, the reduced social participation has to be considered as effects of factors both in the person and in the environment, and in the interplay between the ageing individual and a changing society. Theories focusing on this interplay, on proactive adaptations to change and o...

Research on spouses’ joint work exits is scarce, although household factors such as spouses’ work status, marital quality, and caregiving burdens are likely to affect seniors’ work engagement. We therefore examine whether the work exit probability of one spouse affects that of the other. Discrete-time hazard regression analyses of survey data linked to later registry information including all gainfully employed married respondents aged 50–74 with a working spouse ( N = 1,764) were used to assess subsequent work exits. A spouse’s work exit is a strong predictor of a respondent’s work exit (hazard ratio 3.1, 95% confidence interval [2.5, 4.0]). Educational attainment, poor marital quality, and spouses’ health and care needs do not predict work exits. Surprisingly, no gender differences are observed. Research on larger survey samples to distinguish different work exit routes and reasons for spouses’ joint work exits appears warranted. To account for cultural and welfare state characteristics, cross-national studies ought to be undertaken.

The objectives of the Norwegian panel study on life course, ageing and generation (NorLAG) are to: explore conditions for active ageing and wellbeing in later life; examine how different social contexts respond to long lives and ageing populations; and provide knowledge needed for the development of sustainable policies and practices in the field.

At the turn of this century, Norway was one of few Western countries without a large-scale longitudinal study on ageing and the life-course. Norwegian ageing studies were in general small and cross-sectional. The empirical foundation provided by large-scale longitudinal studies like those found in countries such as Sweden (SWEOLD, SNACK), Germany (DEAS, BASE), United States (HRS), and the Netherlands (LASA) was lacking. As such, there was limited knowledge on ageing and age-related changes in Norwegian welfare politics. In 2001, Norwegian Social Research (NOVA) therefore launched the Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation Study (NorLAG), with financial backing from the Research Council of Norway, the Ministry of Social Affairs, and NOVA. The NorLAG study is a multidisciplinary endeavour, primarily located in the intersection between sociology and psychology, but including themes, models, and research instruments from social medicine, clinical psychology, demography, political science and anthropology. It is designed as a longitudinal study for five waves of data collections. So far, two waves have been conducted. The first one was carried out in 2002-03. In the second wave (2007-08), NorLAG was merged with the United Nations-initiated Generations and Gender Survey (GGS). The data collection was therefore labelled LOGG: Life-course, Generation and Gender. Whereas the first wave of NorLAG includes persons 40 years and older, LOGG also includes persons 18 to 39 years. Both the NorLAG and LOGG datasets are now part of ACCESS Life Course, a Research Infrastructure Project that is financed by the National Financing Initiative for Research Infrastructure at the Research Council of Norway (1). This way, data are made easily accessible to the whole research community. The present paper provides an overview of the NorLAG study, including descriptions of the study’s objectives and key research areas, details about the two data collections, and information about how to get hold of the data. In line with the theme of this special issue of the Norwegian Journal of Epidemiology, our main focus will be on the NorLAG study, including persons 40 years and older.

This report is based on analyses of the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer among employed persons and leaders. Data are collected by telephone interviews for each of seven years, from 2003 to 2009. Samples are nationally representative and consist each year of about 1000 employed persons aged 15 years and above, and about 750 administrative leaders or their deputies from 600 private companies with 10 or more employees, and 150 administrative leaders or their deputies from the public sector. Both for the barometer among employed persons and the barometer among leaders, new samples are drawn each year. Thus, they make up two time series with comparable samples for each of the seven years. In addition, we are including in some analyses results from a poll from February 2009, where leaders were asked three of the same questions as in the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer. Results from the barometers among leaders from 2003 to 2007 are reported by Solem (2008), and for employed person from 2003 to 2008 by Solem & Mykletun (2009). This report includes data from all the seven years for both employed persons and leaders. The background of this report is the recent changes in global finances; the financial crisis. What is presented in the two earlier reports may look different when the economic situation is turning. However, Norway has managed comparably well under the financial crisis, and have seen only modest increases in unemployment. The economic cycles in Norway are described by Statistics Norway as rising from about 2003 to late 2007. A change in the cycle was seen around the turn of the year 2007/2008. The first signs of an impending crisis were observed in 2007, and the crisis was acute in September 2008 (SSB 2009). The economic cycles described for the period when data for the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer are collected, offer opportunities for studying connections between labour market changes and the position of older workers. The results indicate that the recession have effects both on opinions (the cognitive element of attitudes), preferences (the affective element), and on behaviour or behavioural dispositions (the behavioural element). Such effects are observed both among leaders and employed persons, and both among seniors and younger workers. Effects are clearer, or detected earlier, in the private than in the public sector. This is expected since the private sector is more directly influenced by economic cycles. The causal chains are not obvious, much has happened over a short period of time, and it is not evident which changes occur first. As mentioned, we see changes first in the private sector, but not earlier among leaders than among employed persons in general, and not earlier in any specific age group. Our observations twelve months apart give the impression of a high degree of simultaneity, which may be the result of mass media communication reaching the majority at the same time. Alternatively, signs of recession could first have affected leaders and increased their scepticism and negative reactions against older workers, and subsequently have lead to changes in older workers’ self-concept and attitudes toward ageing and work. Such a causal path is possible, but probably not a primary path. Wide groups of leaders and common workers seem to take information from the same sources; the mass media, and at the same time. Three observations of leaders’ attitudes six months apart; early September 2008 (just before the financial crisis ‘exploded’ in mass-media), late February 2009 and early September 2009, show some strong short-term reactions. The behavioural disposition toward accepting that older workers are fired before younger workers in the case of downsizing gain considerably less opposition among leaders in the private sector in February 2009 than in September 2008 and is back to the previous level in September 2009. Firing older workers first is in most cases against the seniority principle, which has legal status in Norwegian working life. There is also an acute, but less dramatic, reaction both in the private and public sector in the agreement to the statement that it is «advantageous to our company if older workers remain in work up to the normal retirement age». Leaders express in February 2009 less interest in keeping older workers than both in September 2008 and in September 2009. Conceptions of the work ability of older workers compared to younger workers do not show acute changes. We find an increasingly less positive opinion of older workers’ work performance from 2007 among leaders in the private sector and the opposite change among leaders in the public sector. In both cases the changes are less dramatic compared to the changes in the behavioural dispositions mention above. This cognitive content of attitudes thus seems to change slower than the behavioural dispositions. It is not possible to establish from the data of the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer if behaviour changes at the same pace as behavioural dispositions. The finding that the behavioural disposition concerning the seniority principle change back to normal quite fast, may indicate that the behaviour have been less affected. Perhaps the relatively stable positive opinion about older workers’ performance has been a buffer that has facilitated a return of behavioural dispositions back to the previous level. Among workers below 55 years we find much of the same changes in attitudes as among seniors (55 years +). However, in many cases the changes are larger among seniors. This may have many causes, like that seniors may feel more vulnerable when the company need downsizing. It may also be that seniors feel solidarity towards young workers facing possible unemployment. Seniors may find support for a decision to resign by adjusting their conceptions of older workers’ abilities, e.g.: «Young people need the job more, and besides I am less productive then they are». We do not know the strength of this mechanism. Nevertheless, the somewhat larger changes in attitudes among seniors show that they are as flexible in their attitudes, if not more so, as younger workers. Senior workers’ enthusiasm for their work seems unaffected by economic cycles. Their plans for retirement and interest in working also seem to be unaffected up to 2009 when the steady increase from 2003 in the interest for late retirement seems to stop. We see this stop among men aged 55-61 years, but not among women. At the same time, data from Statistics Norway show that the employment rate among men aged 55-64 years peked in 2008 and was falling in 2009. Thus, we find no indication that older workers cling to their jobs due to the financial crisis, a pattern which have been found in the U.S. (Munnell et al. 2009, Helman et al. 2009). In the U.S., this is probably due to the fact that pension funds often are invested in the stock marked, and accordingly funds are lost in bankruptcies and falling rates of exchange. In Norway, pension funds are among the safest investments and risks for the individual pensioner are very low. Policy implications The tripartite agreement on a more including working life (the IA-agreement) which was effective from 2001, renewed in 2006 and again in 2010 for a new four-years period to the end of 2013, have three main objectives; to reduce sickness absence, increase the employment of disabled persons and to voluntarily delay the date of retirement for older workers. The authorities, employers and employees are cooperating in joint efforts on company level and on national level to achieve these goals. By the end of 2009, the objective of increasing the effective retirement age with six months in average, was achieved. The results from the Norwegian Senior Policy Barometer suggest there are reasons to continue to exert strong efforts in stimulating older workers to retire late. The success up to 2009 is not maintained by itself. The inclination of seniors to choose work or retirement seems less sensitive to economic cycles than the behavioural dispositions of leaders, and senior policy may have a solid base in the motivation for work among many seniors, even in recession when the position of older workers is challenged. Also, the behavioural dispositions of leaders to retain older workers seems to change more easily than their opinions of older workers. Stable positive conceptions of older workers may be a solid fundament that is able to bring negative fluctuations in behavioural dispositions back in a positive direction. If this is the case, it is important to reinforce realistic conceptions of older workers and to endorse solid knowledge about advantages and disadvantages of older workers. Because cultural attitudes about ageing and older person are basically negative (Levy 2003), realistic information may sound as exaggerations of positive aspects. However, some aspects are negative. In occupations where short reaction time and physical power is required, most older workers are at a disadvantage. In occupations that empasize experience and expertise, older workers have an advantage. It is important to inform about both positive and negative aspects of older workers’ abilities and work performance in such a way that leaders, seniors and colleagues react with less automatic reflexes based upon built-in negative cultural attitudes. Denne rapporten presenterer analyser av Norsk seniorpolitisk barometer blant yrkesaktive og blant ledere i norsk arbeidsliv fra og med 2003 til og med 2009. I denne perioden har vi hatt oppgangstider fra 2003 til 2007/2008 og konjunkturnedgang fra 2007/2008. Finanskrisa slo til for fullt fra september 2008, og den synes å ha påvirket holdningene til eldre arbeidskraft, men med ulik tyngde og varighet. Virkningene er tydeligere i privat sektor enn i offentlig sektor. Et gjennomgående trekk er at mange av de positive endringene vi så i holdningene til eldre under oppgangkonjunkturen, har stagnert etter at finanskrisa startet. Det er få tilfeller av at positive endringer er reversert, og da har reverseringen oftest hatt en midlertidig karakter. Mye synes også upåvirket av finanskrisa. Det gjelder f.eks. seniorenes arbeidsglede og opplevelse av å mestre jobben. Vi kan se tegn til stagnasjon i interesse for sen pensjonering, i første rekke blant mannlige seniorer. Det betyr at man i det seniorpolitiske arbeidet og i arbeidet med IA-avtalen ikke kan regne med at de senere års positive utvikling vil fortsette av seg selv.

ABSTRACTThe purpose is to study how spouses of persons with dementia cope with losses and caregiving tasks during thedementia process and how their coping is related to the individual's and the couple's history of attachment. Thesample consists of 28 couples where one of the spouses has dementia. The caregiving spouses, aged 60-87, areinterviewed at an early stage of dementia and are followed up every 6-9 months over a periode of three years.The life situation is continually changing, and coping methods are repeatedly challenged. Coping with lossesand readjustments are dependent upon their need of the partner to feel safe. Different patterns of attachment behaviourare seen. Compulsive caregiving spouses attend to their spouse beyond their needs. Spouses in anxiousattachment often panic and try to fight back the symptoms of dementia. A pattern of compulsive self-sufficiencymanifests itself as arguing or withdrawal from the partner. Secure attachment makes it easier to accept thechanges, keep in contact and care. To understand the strains and coping of the spouses, we need to understandhow dementia triggers patterns of attachment behaviour. They need more than information on dementia andtraining in handling various symptoms. They need empathy and individually adapted interventions.INTRODUCTIONEmerging dementia with gradual mental deterioriationand increasing dependency ending in death, is frighteningto those involved, both to the person himself andto the family. The new situation disturbes an establishedbalance in the relationship and interferes withcommunication. Meaningful mutual contact and sharedmeaning is gradually lost.In the book ‘Living in the Labyrinth’ Diana FrielMcGowin, who had received a diagnosis of dementia,writes: ’My every molecule seems to scream out that Ido, indeed, exist, and that existence must be valued bysomeone! Without someone to walk this labyrinth bymy side, without the touch of a fellow traveller whounderstands my need of self-worth, how can I endurethe rest of this uncharted journey?’ (Cited after Kitwood1997, p. 15). This person is in desperate need ofa secure attachment figure to recognize, help and guideher. In this paper we are focusing on the situation ofthe fellow traveller, the chart reader; the spouse.The burdens of family caregiving for persons withdementia are documented in a great number of studies(Morris & Morris 1993). The tasks of a fellow travellerand navigator in the labyrinth of dementia are, not leastdue to strong personal involvement, also hard toendure. Research does not reveal any clear and simpleconclusions on how coping stategies, social support orprofessional interventions may ease the burden (Zaritet al. 1986). By including attachment theory in theframework of analysis, we hope to come closer tounderstanding changing relationships and how burdensmay be eased.From an outside position it is difficult to ascertainwhat the most heavy burdens are. A distinction has tobe made between objective and subjective burden(Duijnstee 1992, Morris & Morris 1993). The objectiveburden, often measured by severity of dementia symptoms,is not strongly associated with subjective burdenas experienced by the caregiver (George & Gwyther1986, Zarit et al. 1986). ‘Over time the meaning givento a stressor seems more important than its occurence’(Lévesque et al. 1998, p. 253). When the goal of the effortsnot only is to give good care, but also to maintaina relationship, burden may have to be measured bydifferent standards. Objective burden, or elements ofobjective burden, may even be evaluated in positiveterms by the caregiver (Farran et al. 1991, Grafström1994, Motenko 1989). Caregivers may need elementsof ‘the burden’ in order to maintain attachment bondsor to fulfill their obligations. Interventions to take suchburdens away, without considering the underlyingneeds or goals, may interfere with the best interests ofthe caregiver – and of the person with dementia.This article is based upon a study with the purposeof finding

The article reviews Norwegian and international research on aging and work; causes of early exit, attitudes towards older workers, aging and work performance, and trends of changes in working life. Workers seem to have become too old to work at increasingly younger ages. Recent and future demographic changes call for initiatives to keep older workers in the work force. In many countries favourable early retirement arrangements are reversed in order to stop pulling older workers prematurely out of work. The other main group of factors causing early exit, the push factors in the work environment, have until recently attracted less attention. Even if older workers in general seem to be no less effective than younger workers, employers prefer to recruit younger workers, and to dismiss older workers when reducing the staff. However, employers’ cognitions of older workes’ performance is quite nuanced. There seems to be an emotional ambivalence where negative feelings are less openly expressed, still they seem to have a strong influence on decisions. Ways of influencing attitudes towards older workers are discussed. Companies creating working conditions to stimulate, include and motivate middle-aged and older workers may get an advantage in the market. This may even benefit workers of all ages.

Udgivelsesdato: 15.12.09 Presently the research on ageism is marked by numerous more or less diffuse definitions of the concept of ageism. Many studies investigate both the causes and consequences of ageism without a clear definition of the phenomenon. As a consequence the area is characterized by diverging research results which are hard to re-test and to compare. It is therefore difficult to obtain a framework on ageism.This article offers a conceptual clarification of ageism. Based on a review of the existing literature, a new definition of ageism is introduced. This definition is more explicit and complex than previous definitions. This has two purposes. Firstly, its clarity constitutes the foundation for higher reliability and validity in future research about ageism. Secondly, its complexity offers a new way of systemizing theories on ageism.

Aldersdemens angår mange individer, par og familier. Denne rapporten retter søkelyset mot hvordan ektefeller opplever forandringer som skjer ved partners demensutvikling, og hvordan de forholder seg i den nye situasjonen. Ektefellene er fulgt opp gjennom samtaler over en femårsperiode. Demens rammer ikke bare entkeltpersoner, men relasjoner og samspill mellom mennesker. Rapporten omhandler viktige prosesser knyttet til belastninger, tap og kontraktsendringer, men også mestringsmåter, tilpasning og muligheter for ny erkjennelse over tid. Funnenes konsekvenser for tiltak og tjenester drøftes, og betydningen av et tett samspill mellom kartlegging, psykologisk intervensjon og praktiske omsorgstilbud blir understreket.