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This serious game is a pedagogic tool to help design innovative and diversified horticultural systems. The participants integrates progressively new levers among the one suggested to maximize natural regulation processes and limit the use of inputs and may win according to the different performance of his system. It make participants aware of the functioning of agro-ecological systems and, in particular for fruit production, of the biological, agronomic, ecological, technical and economic complexity of sustainable agriculture.

Supporting functional biodiversity (FB), which provides natural pest regulation, is an environmentally sound and promising approach to reduce pesticide use in perennial cultures such as apple, especially in organic farming. However, little is known about farmers’ practices and motivations to implement techniques that favor FB, especially whether or not they really expect anything from FB in terms of pest regulation. In fact, FB-supporting techniques (FB-techniques) are massively questioned by practitioners due to inadequate information about their effectiveness. An interview survey was performed in eight European countries(i) to describe farmers’ practices and identify promising FB-techniques: (ii) to better understand their perceptions of and values associated with FB; and (iii) to identify potential drivers of (non-)adoption. Fifty-five advisors and 125 orchard managers with various degrees of experience and convictions about FB were interviewed and a total of 24 different FB-techniques which can be assigned to three different categories (ecological infrastructures, farming practices and redesign techniques) were described. Some were well-established measures (e.g., hedges and bird houses), while others were more marginal and more recent (e.g., animal introduction and compost). On average, farmers combined more than four techniques that had been implemented over a period of 13 years, especially during their establishment or conversion period. In general, it was difficult for farmers to evaluate the effectiveness of individual FB-techniques on pest regulation. They considered FB-techniques as a whole, targeting multiple species, and valued multiple ecosystem services in addition to pest regulation. The techniques implemented and their associated values differed among farmers who adopted various approaches towards FB. Three different approaches were defined: passive, active and integrated. Their appraisal of FB is even more complex because it may change with time an

This video presents three monitoring methods (threshing, trap strip and predation plate) that can be used in orchards to monitor functional biodiversity and assess the presence or activity of useful beneficials to control certain pests. The advantage of these simplified methods is that fruit farmers can use them independently to assess the effect of their agro-ecological practices or infrastructures on functional biodiversity.

This video presents three monitoring methods (threshing, trap strip and predation plate) that can be used in orchards to monitor functional biodiversity and assess the presence or activity of useful beneficials to control certain pests. The advantage of these simplified methods is that fruit farmers can use them independently to assess the effect of their agro-ecological practices or infrastructures on functional biodiversity.

Plant protection in organic farming has to simultaneously comply with two sets of regulations: regulations on organic production and pesticide legislation. This chapter describes the organic approach to plant protection, including the role of systems management versus direct interventions, the range of authorised substances and the procedures for authorising new substances and the withdrawal of old substances. External factors not related to organic farming also influence the availability of plant protection products. Scientific, regulatory and economic aspects may limit the registration of substances in a given country. On the other hand, there is an alternative route for the registration of fertilisers and plant strengtheners in some countries. As a result, the range of plant protection products available to organic farmers varies from one country to another. The history of the authorisation of sodium bicarbonate, spinosad, copper fungicides, clay minerals and granulosis viruses illustrates how the two sets of regulations can interact in very different ways, creating different patterns of availability. The practice of plant protection is illustrated for the prevention and control of apple scab, fire blight and codling moth in organic apple orchards. At the end of the chapter, research perspectives for a ‘self-regulating’ apple orchard where plant protection fully relies on systems management are presented. The level of environmental friendliness already achieved by organic plant protection is discussed, and approaches with the potential for improvement are identified.

Gastrointestinal parasitism with helminths and protozoa remains a major threat in cattle and small ruminant production and has been “rediscovered” in pig and poultry production systems operating under organic farming rules because of the requirement to grant outdoor access to the animals. The control of these parasitic infections is a key issue for the economic viability of farms and for animal welfare. Control solutions aim at (i) providing the agronomical bases for parasite control through rational management of pastures; (ii) stimulating the host immune response through different means; (iii) exploring and evaluating the efficacy of new drugs (i.e., phytotherapy, homeopathy and nutraceuticals); and (iv) developing new concepts of application of chemical antiparasitic drugs (e.g., targeted selective treatments). These four control principles will be illustrated with examples taken from the different livestock production systems. The perspectives of current research are to provide both organic and conventional farmers with a “basket of options” to be adapted to the various situations, in order to achieve more sustainable, integrated approaches to parasite control.

The biggest mitigation potential of agriculture lies in soil carbon sequestration. The most promising practices for this, such as the use of legume leys and organic fertilisers, are common to organic agriculture, thus suggesting considerable mitigation potential for this farming system. However, mitigation in agriculture needs to be assessed beyond the level of single farming practices. This is best illustrated with the issues of fertility management and animal husbandry. Optimisation of fertility management necessitates optimisation of the soil-fertiliser system as a whole and, thus, the assessment of the links between crop rotations, fertiliser types, tillage and soil carbon sequestration. Optimisation of animal husbandry requires a global view, accounting for life-cycle emissions of feed production. Feeding roughage leads to lower life-cycle emissions. Most effective, however, is a drastic reduction of the number of animals, which necessitates consideration of aspects beyond agriculture. Wider societal changes such as dietary changes to reduce meat consumption or behavioural changes to reduce wastage are necessary. Organic agriculture is well positioned to mitigate climate change in such a systemic context. However, addressing mitigation in agriculture leads to some change of thought in conventional agriculture. By acknowledging the essential role of soil carbon sequestration, for example, systemic ideas have gained increasing importance in conventional agriculture. This development should be used to move towards a global approach to sustainable systemic and multifunctional agriculture.

La gestion des bio-agresseurs repose, selon les principes de l'agriculture biologique, sur une approche globale de l'agrosystème en lien avec les écosystèmes environnants. Cependant la demande par les producteurs de solutions de protection rapidement opérationnelles peut amener l'expérimentateur à privilégier la recherche de mesures basées sur les produits phytosanitaires. Depuis 30 ans, le Groupe de Recherche en Agriculture Biologique (GRAB) conduit des expérimentations en productions végétales biologiques. Il a cherché à développer une grille d'analyse de ses résultats pour les situer vis-à-vis des principes de l’approche globale des écosystèmes. Cette analyse s'est inspirée de différentes approches multi-niveaux de la protection des cultures. Elle hiérarchise les expérimentations en 3 niveaux suivant le caractère plus ou moins direct de la protection vis à vis des bio-agresseurs. Le nombre d'expérimentations conduites par niveau a ainsi été suivi pendant neuf années. Des expérimentations dans chacun des niveaux ont montré des résultats d'efficacité. Mais les limites rencontrées, ont engendré un accroissement des recherches du GRAB vers les niveaux d'approche global du système. Cette analyse multi-niveaux s'avère prometteuse pour piloter le choix des futures expérimentations d'une station ou d'une filière. Elle peut permettre de veiller à l'équilibre entre niveaux, et d'anticiper les compétences et les partenariats nouveaux requis par les approches globales.

The control of pests in organic orchards cannot solely rely on the use of direct control methods. The effect of manipulating the habitat of orchard pests and natural enemies through tree architecture and the increase of plant diversity has been investigated in an experimental organic apple orchard and in a pear orchard, in order to provide information about the potential benefits of these cultural practices. Tree training affected the development of the most detrimental pests of apple trees, and the centrifugal training system globally provided better aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea) and mite (Panonychus ulmi) control than the more classical Solaxe system, whereas codling moth (Cydia pomonella) was favoured compared to Solaxe. The study of an experimental hedgerow designed to optimise protection of the pear orchard allowed us to validate the basic principles of designing plant assemblages to increase plant diversity in the orchard surroundings, namely the introduction of a succession of resources favouring the natural enemies of the key orchard pests, and to avoid detrimental effects (pests or diseases shared with the crops). This experiment and other studies suggest that manipulating the plant diversity adjacent to the orchard has an effect on entomocenosis. However, the potential benefits for the orchard only concern the control of pests that can be tolerated at high infestation rates.

In Europe, the pervasive use of pesticides in agricultural areas has led to the deterioration of the quality of groundwater and surface water, resources earmarked for human consumption. The aim of the European Water Framework Directive 91/474 is to restore the “good ecological status” of surface water and to protect water that might be used for drinking water production by 2015. Interactions within the soil determine the fate of environmental pesticides. Water resource contamination may persist for a long time after the last use of pesticides (i.e., atrazine). Pesticide persistence is highly variable. The fate and persistence of pesticides in the environment depend on agricultural pesticide practices and on soil interactions, which are interrelated physical, chemical and biological processes that are often sitespecific. This study, which is taking place at INRA’s Mirecourt Experimental Station in the Lorraine region of France, will make it possible to evaluate the persistence and environmental resilience of pesticides in water from plots recently converted to organic farming, within the framework of the WFD. A database includes all pesticide practices from 1969 to 2004, the year of the last treatment. It is hoped that the Mirecourt study, five years after the end of pesticide use, will shed light on the long-term persistence of pesticides in water resources.

At the La Tapy Experimental Station in southeastern France, a plot of table grapes is managed according to the principles of organic farming in order to study potential technical impediments of this growing system compared to another plot that is managed according to the principles of sustainable agriculture. Muscat de Hambourg, the variety common to these two plots, is used as a reference for the different observations. Results are primarily related to the impact of pest management efficiency on vine quality. The qualitative requirement that powdery mildew be absent on table grapes is difficult to fulfil in the case of organic farming, even with several different treatments and frequent applications. Botrytis management is related to climatic conditions; disease prevention is therefore essential. Small populations of grapeberry moths (Lobesia botrana) and the absence of grape bud moths (Eupoecilia ambiguella) on those plots, as well as the efficacy of specific treatments, even in the context of biological control, using products containing Bacillus thuringiensis, led to either none or negligible damage on the two observed plots. Monitoring of grape leaf hopper populations (Empoasca vitis) revealed that there was no increase in the larva population. The stable level of auxiliaries on this plot partially explains the low incidence of Empoasca vitis.

The peach aphid Myzus persicae Sulzer is one of the major pests found on peach trees. The CTIFL has been running tests since 2005 to assess the efficacy of Surround® WP, a product containing kaolin that is applied either at the time of leaf fall to prevent winter egg-laying or in the spring to prevent the establishment of fundatrices. The period of application and the production system (organic or conventional) were tested, allowing a comparison with chemical aphicides. The clay product used at leaf fall reduced winter egg-laying by about 50%. Autumn application of Surround® alone was not sufficient to control aphid colonies in the spring, but it could be used as part of a supervised control strategy, combined with the application of mineral oils in late winter.

Organic farming is often considered to be the most environmentally-friendly crop management system, even if integrated production also aims at decreasing the impact of agriculture on the natural environment. In order to establish references for the agro-environmental evaluation of these two production systems in relation to grape growing, INRA carried out an initial study from 2001 to 2004 at the plot scale. This study focused on two grape varieties (Merlot N and Cabernet Sauvignon) in its Couhins vineyard (Graves cru classé), located on two organically-farmed plots and two plots using integrated production, a system based on the implementation of decision rules aimed at limiting the number of pest control treatments. Production means only differed in terms of pest control management (choice of products and application strategy). Each of the parcels covered approximately 0.30 ha. An agro-environmental evaluation of these two systems was made for 2003, using the INDIGO Vigne method at the plot level. Because of their nature, the choice of parameters for the indicators used determines the interpretation of the results. Nevertheless, it appears that the environmental impact of integrated production is more favourable in this case than that of organic farming, particularly in terms of pest control and energy indicators. One of the reasons for this is the high number of applications of pest control treatments in organic farming and, as a result, higher energy consumption, as well as the use of copper that has a major impact on deep waters, the ground and the air. The two systems can decrease their environmental impact by limiting the number of tractor runs for soil maintenance. Flexibility appears to be greater in the case of integrated production since, contrary to organic farming, it can use herbicides under the row. The calculation of the agro-environmental evaluation on the parcel using integrated protection with chemical weeding under the row leads to a clear improv

Numerous pesticide applications are required for orchard protection, regardless of the guidelines. Organic fruit production (OFP) mainly relies on the use of mineral fungicides and microbiological or naturally-occurring insecticides. The environmental impact of this type of production does not significantly differ from that of conventional production when assessed in terms of synthetic indicators. However, the abundance of earthworms, as well as the abundance and specific richness of arthropod pests and beneficials in the orchards and surrounding hedges, is greater in OFP than in conventional orchards. Generalist predators are usually less affected by OFP compounds than by the chemical pesticides applied in conventional orchards. OFP also benefits avian communities, and above all, insectivorous birds, for which organic orchards offer a suitable habitat similar to that of undisturbed natural areas. In addition to this general trend, discrepancies may be observed in the protection responses of different insect groups. The abundance of hymenopteran parasitoids is the lowest in organic orchards in which outbreaks of phytophagous mites are also recorded in relation to the intensive use of sulphur for scab protection. Biological insecticides often act in ways that are similar to those of chemical ones, and the restricted choice of available compounds is likely to induce resistance selection in insect pests. Although maintaining biodiversity is not a direct result of the implementation of OFP guidelines, it seems to be widely considered as an option by organic growers, both alone and as a complementary tool for pest regulation.

Common wheat bunt (caused by the fungus Tilletia caries or Tilletia foetida) is a disease whose incidence is clearly on the rise in organic farming, jeopardising the balance of the French organic cereal sector. Control methods adapted to organic farming must be found, especially since we know that no seed treatment is 100% effective. The use of varietal resistance appears particularly promising for limiting the spread of the disease. Since 2000, an experiment whose purpose is to assess the resistance of soft wheat varieties to Tilletia caries is conducted each year by the French plant institute, ARVALIS. These experiments make it possible to identify the existence of a wide behavioural variability with respect to this pathogen among the different varieties grown in France. However, no variety corresponding to the specific criteria imposed by organic agriculture has yet to show adequate levels of resistance. At the same time, a European testing network revealed a strong genotype X environment interaction, emphasizing the necessity of consolidating these initial observations by increasing the number of test sites and by identifying virulence genes present in France as well as resistance genes present in the different varieties.

Interdisciplinary approaches developed concerning the conversion to organic farming show that the types of conversion trajectories can be differentiated on the basis of the progression of crop protection changes within a larger framework where relationships to other “objects” are transformed – the soil, products, rotations, work organisation, marketing, social networks and knowledge acquisition. In the case of integrated plant production, the extent of changes depends on the degree of recomposition of agronomic practices. This transition implies major knowledge acquisition that relies on the support and contribution of advisors and on the group dynamics that develop within a group of farmers. Transitions towards integrated crop protection are, by their nature, more reversible and therefore more fragile than the conversion to organic farming. This is due to the fact that they are not stabilised by a certification or by the market, and analysis shows that their sustainability is linked in part to their integration within a group dynamics.

This work highlights the ecological stakes and the drawbacks associated with the development of organic lamb production on the Causse Méjan, a calcareous plateau, part of which is included in the Cévennes National Park (PnC). It analyses the tensions underlying a valorisation project for organic lambs by a small group of stockbreeders that is supported by the national park because of the ecological quality of their practices. On the one hand, since breeders are highly dependent on the ecological characteristics of the environment, they are forced to multiply their marketing channels and to invest a great deal of energy to obtain good prices for their meat whose characteristics do not match the current standards of quality (homogeneity, clear meat). On the other hand, the Pac can neither fully support these stockbreeders whose practices are marginal at the local level without straining its relationships with mainstream local breeders, nor overstep its role as the protector of nature. Considering this unattractive context and the interesting economic outlooks offered by the mainstream breeding system, which options will the young breeders of the future choose? Supporting a microexperiment like this one appears to be an important step for the development of new production models that combine economic profitability and ecological effectiveness.

How can we approach strategies and innovations specific to organic farmers? Is the appearance of new practices evidence of a modification of the structure of professional organic farming? On the basis of a field study carried out in the Midi-Pyrénées region in France, sociological analysis casts light on several examples of strategies and innovations specific to the world of organic farming and from which they arise. The strategic courses of action taken by organic farmers are therefore analysed in relation to organic farming characteristics, defined as the set of issues, interests, representations and other specific characteristics that structure this socio-professional field. Organic farming innovations are the result of interactions between the socio-technical framework, the result of how this field is structured, and the practices of organic farmers (having, to some extent, incorporated these same properties). The emergence of innovative practices as a result of new inputs (converted or used for the first time) is proof of the structural modifications taking place within the area of professional organic farming. Although they may appear to “enrich” organic farming diversity, these new practices are partially derived from traditional farming practices not used in organic farming. They raise the question of the use and the transformation of certain properties that characterise professional organic farming.

Organic farming certification has certainly contributed to unifying organic production, particularly by reducing the number of private charters. However, this reduction should not be misleading. Organic agriculture cannot be reduced to just a label and includes other requirements related to ethics, agronomy and economic policy whose implementation contributes to the diversification of marketing organisations that selectively ensure the marketing of organic products. Furthermore, in the case of viticulture, organic producers have recently placed more emphasis on the taste quality of their wines that they have linked in various ways to the quality of the environment. This new link between taste and environment has added a new complexity to marketing organisations and has given impetus to the use of environmentally-friendly vine-growing practices that have become a resource for the development of wines that are strongly identified with a terroir. Therefore, an increasing number of quality wines make use of organic or biodynamic practices to make better wines that are more representative of the quality of their terroir, but that do not emphasize the corresponding certification in order to keep their quality message clear.

Les résultats montrent tout d’abord que la filière de produits dits « biologiques » se structure en deux organisations de producteurs qui se différencient, tant par le mode de certification choisie que par leur niveaux d’insertion dans les dispositifs institutionnels conventionnels. Dans les deux cas néanmoins, un frein important est l’absence de maîtrise d’indicateurs sur les conditions d’évaluation économique et financière des produits biologiques. Par ailleurs, trois freins majeurs sont mis en évidence par l’analyse technico-économique et agronomique des exploitations (i) l’absence de référentiels et d’appui technique adaptés aux conditions locales, (ii) la faiblesse et la dispersion concernant l’approvisionnement et l’accès aux intrants adaptés et enfin (iii) la faible productivité du travail. Une action collective de coordination impliquant les collectivités locales, les organisations de producteurs, les organismes techniques et la recherche est nécessaire.

A network of 42 sheep farms (including 13 in organic farming (OF)) shows that the gross margin per ewe is 24% lower in OF in the mountains because of high food costs and comparable in the lowlands because of the high level of food self-sufficiency based on the cultivation of fodder and grain; incomes are identical when structural costs are comparable. An analysis of four demonstration farms shows that, given the different conditions, specific livestock management is required depending on the presence of tillable land or not. If their proportion is limited, lambings are equally distributed between spring and autumn in order to maximise fodder self-sufficiency. When crops are possible, lambings are focused on autumn (with good sale prices), which requires the increased use of concentrates, some of which are produced on the farm. A five-year study revealed that these strategies lead to a convergence of between 80 and 90% food self-sufficiency. In suckling livestock in organic as well as conventional farming systems, high levels of forage and food self-sufficiency are essential to ensure economic viability within the context of rising grain prices.

Sustainable development calls upon the farming sector to commit itself to the transmission of natural resources to future generations. The INRA research team of Mirecourt studies the design of environmentally-friendly farming systems. The design of these systems is based on a multitude of objectives, and their evaluation is determined by a wide range of criteria. This work aims at determining the practical conditions for implementing agricultural systems considered to be sustainable from an environmental point of view. Two organic dairy systems considered to be environmentally friendly ex ante have been designed in partnership with the staff of the INRA research team of Mirecourt. A grazing dairy system and a mixed-crop dairy system are being experimentally tested at the system scale. The two systems have environmental and agricultural objectives. They are managed using multi-objective decision rules and are assessed on their biotechnical and practical properties, using a structured multiyear experimental design, completed by a model-based assessment. Assessment is oriented towards progressive and permanent re-designing of the systems in order to increase their environmental sustainability and feasibility at the practical level. Knowledge acquired from the two prototypes will then have to be validated on commercial farms.

The aim of this work was to identify the impact of farming practices on permanent grassland vegetation during the conversion from conventional to organic farming. We considered functional and species diversities in order to compare the different grassland categories based on the farming practices used over a period of six years - five years before conversion and one year after. We identified three categories of grasslands: those generally cut twice a year, those intensely grazed, and those that were used under diversified practices. We showed that grasslands characterised by cutting and low fertilization level have the highest species richness compared to the other two categories (23.2, 16.9 and 17 species, respectively), and the lowest pastoral index (45.9, 66.8 and 68.6, respectively). These cut paddocks also presented the highest functional diversity (i.e., richness of functional property attributes) for two of the properties studied: means of dispersal and establishment strategy as defined by Grime. Grasslands with diversified practices (grazing, cutting and nitrogen supply) were not characterised by any single or combined functional property attribute, to the contrary of the two other categories. Finally, farming practices alone do not explain all of the differences in vegetation. We therefore hypothesize that, first, the dynamics of permanent grassland vegetation following conversion to organic farming is only initiated by agricultural practices and, second, other key factors such as landscape characteristics affect these dynamics.

A nutritional analysis was added to the study of the characterization of wheat varieties in organic and industrial farming systems for the year 2005-2006. The experimental design consisted of three wheat varieties (Atrium, Ataro and Renan) and three densities (200, 400 and 600 grains/m2) on two soils representative of the Auvergne region. The parameters studied were productivity, technological suitability and nutritional value (N, P, K, Ca, Mg). The yield was particularly low for organic farming (23 q/ha), following unfavorable climatic conditions. In spite of the low yield under organic farming conditions, the Mg and P contents in the grains were normal. The low thousand-grain weight and the early maturity of Atrium did not make it possible to increase the nutritional density of the grains in 2006. These results must be confirmed so that we can propose a typology of varieties with high nutritional density linked to cropping practices and the environment. This typology will be used to make breads that are beneficial to our health.

Dexi-SH* is an ex ante multivariate model for assessing the sustainability of dairy cows grazing systems. This model is composed of three sub-models that evaluate the impact of the systems on: (i) biotic resources; (ii) abiotic resources, and (iii) pollution risks. The structuring of the hierarchical tree was inspired by that of the Masc model. The choice of criteria and their aggregation modalities were discussed within a multi-disciplinary group of scientists. For each cluster, a utility function was established in order to determine weighting and priority functions between criteria. The model can take local and regional conditions and standards into account by adjusting criterion categories to the agroecological context, and the specific views of the decision makers by changing the weighting of criteria.

The objective of our work was to investigate innovative sustainable cropping systems to produce regular yields of wheat with a satisfactory grain protein concentration in organic farming systems. Achieving good production levels in stockless French organic farming systems is a major challenge due to strong N limitation. Our approach is mainly based on a better valorisation of the natural nitrogen resources from soil mineralisation and symbiotic fixation of legumes, and not by an increase in the use of organic fertiliser. Two experiments were carried out in southwestern France where winter wheat and durum wheat were grown for their use in human consumption (bread and pasta, respectively). On one hand, cover crops were sown in summer and were incorporated in early November just before the wheat was sown. On the other hand, wheat was cultivated in mixture (intercropping) with a grain legume such as winter pea or fababean. The cover crops were found to be effective in the case of rainy winter years i) because of their role as a nitrate catch crop to mitigate nitrate leaching and ii) because they made it possible to increase the yield and the protein concentration of wheat grains by increasing available N (role of green manure). In the case of intercropping, wheat yield was reduced in comparison to a wheat crop alone, as expected, but the protein concentration was significantly increased and the whole grain yield (wheat + legume) was increased. Thus, in organic farming, intercrops seem to be more effective for enhancing natural nitrogen resources. However, it is still necessary: (i) to optimise the technical sequences of these two farming systems, and; ii) to determine the role of intercrops within rotations and to analyse their effect for both pests and diseases management, which is crucial in organic farming systems.

La vitesse de minéralisation d’un engrais organique commercial a été évaluée durant trois années dans une rizière biologique en Camargue (France). L’effet de différentes doses d’engrais apportées à différentes périodes a été testé. En conditions inondées, l’engrais organique minéralise rapidement. Sur la base de ce résultat, nous montrons qu’une adaptation des pratiques de fertilisation organique, inspirée de celles appliquées pour des engrais minéraux, permet une meilleure valorisation des engrais organiques, découlant sur une meilleure rentabilité.

When markets fail, there may be justification for some market regulations by governments. There are at least four recognised causes of market failures that may call for government intervention in agriculture: negative and positive externalities (notably environmental externalities), public goods, insufficient information and market power (a few buyers or sellers are able to exert power on prices). This reading key of public economics is here used to analyse to what extent government intervention in organic farming is justified. We then examine various corrective steps that governments may take on the example of the French plan in favour of organic farming.

The mineralization rate of a commercial organic fertiliser was evaluated over the course of three years in an organic rice field in the Camargue (France). The effect of different mounts of fertiliser applied at different periods was tested. The organic fertiliser rapidly mineralised under flooded conditions. On the basis of this result, we demonstrated that an adaptation of organic fertilisation practices, similar to those employed for mineral fertilisers, would result in the optimisation of organic fertilisers, leading to improved profitability.

During an experiment carried out over a six-year period, annual applications of large quantities of two types of compost led to an increase in the carbon level in the ground but had little impact on its physicochemical characteristics. No significant effect was revealed on successive vegetable crops. In contrast, it was shown that these cropping systems had specific characteristics. Cropping conditions under plastic cover lead to a high level of mineralisation of the endogenous organic matter and a limited lixiviation of nutrients. As a result of frequent over-fertilisation practices in the past in conventional farming systems, deep soil horizons may contain large stocks of minerals, part of which will be tapped by crops over the years following a conversion to organic farming. In our experiment, this contribution of the soil to subsequent crop nutrient supply largely compensated for the reduction of inputs applied to summer crops up to the sixth year. We therefore hypothesize that these types of effects sustainably mask the impact of changes in fertilisation practices linked to the conversion to organic agriculture.

in the Massif Central. An organic suckler cattle farm network was set up in order to establish technical and economic references. In 2004, 22 farms were monitored (13 of which had been monitored since 2001). All of these farms are located in economically-depressed areas. One hundred percent of the fodder area is under grassland. Annual crops (cereals and a cereal/pulse mix) take up 13% of the farm area and are used as livestock feed. The stocking rate (1 Livestock Unit/ha of fodder area) is 20% lower on organic farms than on conventional farms. Organic farms use 33% less concentrates per LU, and the meat production/LU is 16% lower than for conventional farms. The poorly structured organic beef market forces organic farmers to sell most of their animals (mainly store animals, since fattened animals represent only 43% of the animals sold) on the conventional market without getting premium prices. Since only fattened animals are sold on the organic market at a premium price, the average selling price (€/kg live-weight) of all the animals sold is only 12% higher for organically-bred than for conventionally-bred animals. However, because of lower operational costs (-35% for herd and fodder area costs), the bovine gross margin/LU is 3% higher for OF than for conventionally-bred animals. The lower stocking rate leads to a lower gross product per hectare of farm area. Since this result is balanced by a very low level of operational costs (no chemical inputs), the economic efficiency of the OF system is higher than that of the conventional system. The farm income per worker is the same in both systems. The search for feed self-sufficiency at the farm scale is a crucial element in farm economics, but it is only possible on mixed-crop livestock farms where cropping is possible with adapted crop rotation. The grassland farms, which are the least self-sufficient and have to purchase all the concentrates needed, must sell all their animals on the organic market to get the premium

Organic farming originally deals with the problematic nature/technique within a holistic view. The order of things inspires organic agronomy and social thoughts on agriculture. The link between what is and what has to be socially is not thinkable within modern right and ethic, but it is in accordance with the ancient philosophy. A. Howard, R. Steiner, H.P. Rusch, M. Fukuoka, found their biology according to this fundamental way of behaving. The biology of those founders stands between various philosophical speculations, esoteric speculations, empirical observations, and scientific approaches. According to the ancient philosophy, these authors are suggesting an imitation of nature based on a cyclic understanding. Human intrusion in nature, although founding element of farming, remains hard to legitimate. Indeed the founders are anxious about the agricultural chemistry’s consequences on ecology and society. Today the biological foundation of organic farming could cross again with evolutionism and ecology. A more dynamic conception of nature will open new ways for agronomic reasoning. This also opens up on a more humanistic philosophy of farming. Nevertheless, the holistic ethic of organic farming remains an innovating source for its contemporary development.

A three-year programme was begun in 2007 to develop a method for assessing the competitive potential of wheat varieties with respect to weeds and to encourage the adoption of this criterion in selection programmes. The first year of experiments made it possible to identify the most explanatory characteristics of the competitive potential of wheat (using Italian ryegrass to simulate weeds): height first, followed by ground cover and leaf habit. These factors are nevertheless not adequate for totally predicting the competitive potential of wheat varieties and, in particular, intermediate varieties for which wide variations were observed from one situation to another in our experiments. We are now waiting for the results of two additional years of experiments.

The mineralization rate of a commercial organic fertiliser was evaluated over the course of three years in an organic rice field in the Camargue (France). The effect of different mounts of fertiliser applied at different periods was tested. The organic fertiliser rapidly mineralised under flooded conditions. On the basis of this result, we demonstrated that an adaptation of organic fertilisation practices, similar to those employed for mineral fertilisers, would result in the optimisation of organic fertilisers, leading to improved profitability.

New societal values call for the diversification of agriculture to fit contrasted environments. This process can be depicted by four models defined by two axes, a socio-economic axis (individual logic vs. collective governance), and an agro-ecological axis (analytical vs. systemic approaches). These models differ in: (i) their objectives (from improvement in yield to the empowerment of farmers), (ii) their specific expectations with respect to genotypes (from inherited genetic resources to varieties that represent genetic, ethical and social progress), and (iii) their representations of the environment (from a simple interaction between the bio-physical environment and crop management, to a complex interaction including the skills of stakeholders, outlets, regulations and society). Taking this diversity into account changes the way plant improvement is envisioned. Depending on the model, the five classic stages of plant improvement (setting objectives, creating variability, selecting, evaluating and disseminating) may be called into question. Between the existing analytical model (model I) and a holistic model (model IV) that remains to be developed, lies the challenge of ensuring the sustainability, efficiency and acceptability of plant breeding and resulting innovations.

We compared the use of three farm grown cereal/protein mixes (oat/fava bean, barley/lupin, triticale/pea), that were used to complement lactating dairy cow diets based on hay consisting of alfalfa/orchard grass and perennial grassland. The trial took place in 2007 at the INRA experimental station of Mirecourt, where an organic mixed-crop dairy system is being prototyped. The experiment was carried out in a Latin square with three groups of eight cows (50% Holstein, 50% Montbéliarde). The cows were fed 4 kg/cow/day of one of the three cereal/protein mixes, 8 kg DM/cow/day of alfalfa/orchardgrass hay, and permanent grassland hay ad libitum. The three diets were indicative of the animals’ needs. Diets had no significant effect on milk production (20.3 kg/cow/d) and milk fat content (41.3 g/kg). However, dairy cows fed with the oat/fababean mix had a significantly lower protein content in their milk. This is the result of: (i) a nitrogen surplus in relation to energy, and (ii) a lower starch content compared to the two other diets. Therefore, in organic mixed-crop dairy systems with forages that are rich in nitrogen, the choice to cultivate mixtures of cereal/pulses and the composition of these mixtures must be primarily based on their agronomic interest and not on their zootechnical one since they are not essential to a balanced animal diet.

Clinical mastitis is the main concern in dairy farming today, but there are very few drugs that are compatible with organic specifications. Our study was conducted in order to evaluate the therapeutic efficiency of the intramammary infusion of three essential oils, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus verbenone and Laurus nobilis. Fifty-five cases of mastitis were treated with 10 ml of a mixture of the three oils (1.5% each in sunflower oil). Forty-five others were treated with 10 ml of a mixture of Thymus vulgaris and Rosmarinus verbenone (6% of each in sunflower oil or in water). The recovery rate was only 40%, which is deemed unsatisfactory.

This seminar confirmed that less greenhouse gas (GHG) is emitted per unit area under organic agriculture than under conventional agriculture, and that our eating patterns have a strong impact on factors involved in climate change. Moreover, it shed new light on and contributed original information to a variety of fields. The two major advantages of organic farming in terms of the mitigation of GHG emissions are its ability to store carbon in the ground and the non-use of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers. Means for improving practices and research priorities were identified.

The ram effect, which is a natural method for the control of reproduction in sheep, is an alternative to hormone treatments that are banned on organic farms. The ram effect induces a combination of ovulation and oestrus in ewes that is acyclic and conducive to artificial insemination. The proportion of acyclic females with induced ovulation and their subsequent fertility at the first oestrus is variable. The control of some breeding factors that have been studied here may help to reduce this variability. The proportion of ewes induced to ovulate by rams increased as the season advanced (54% in April vs. 84% at the end of May, p<0.05) and with a longer time period between drying-off and mating: from 29% to 84% (p<0.001) for 22 and 86 days elapsed, respectively. The fertility of these ewes at the first oestrus was also higher at the end of May than in April (86% vs. 39%, p<0.01) and increased with the amount of time elapsed since drying-off (55% and 81% for 22 and 86 days, respectively; p=0.09). The time that the first oestrus occurs is later for lean ewes because they have a higher proportion of short cycles (67%) than fat ewes (41%, p<0.05).

Sixteen meat sheep farms (nine conventional and seven organic) in the centre of France were surveyed to evaluate their economic and production performances (previous interviews) and their strategies related to animal health with particular attention to internal parasites (present interview on health strategies). The organic farms were surveyed in mid-September 2006 and the conventional ones in October 2007. Each interview (1½ or 2 h) included a visit of the farm (with the collection of faeces for evaluation of internal parasites), followed by an open discussion on sheep production and health problems, and parasitic infections, in particular. The discussion was recorded and then transcribed into a word processor file and analysed. The farmers agreed on the fragile health of their animals (with special attention to internal parasites)and were confronted with the low value of each lamb or ewe, which does not allow for high health costs. Even under this limited economic situation, the farmers developed different health strategies. Conventional farmers rely on systematic treatments to prevent parasitic infection; they use low-cost effective synthetic drugs and accept lamb mortality rates ranging from five to eight percent. Their practices are homogeneous, which is possibly due to frequent exchanges with colleagues or veterinarians. The healthcare strategy of organic farmers may be divided into two distinct categories: autonomous (“self-made farmer”) and “creative”. The organic self-made farmers are experienced and aim at a sustainable flock (“cruiser flock”). The creative ones do not seem to easily handle the health strategy aspect and often spend more money on healthcare than their conventional or organic self-made colleagues. Health strategy is therefore not completely dependent on the type of production - conventional versus organic - but on the farmer’s conception of life and nature. The creative farmers believe that disease is a dysfunction that may be corrected wit

Organic meat sheep producers have a very limited array of efficient alternative drugs and limited access to synthetic drugs for controlling internal parasites. The use of targeted selective treatments, e.g., treating only the lambs that cannot cope with infection, would be of interest. The difficulty is to identify those lambs in need of treatment. FAMACHA© (based on an anaemia indicator) has been used with success in tropical areas where the bloodsucker worm Haemonchus contortus is the main gastrointestinal strongyle. The appearance of the wool is sometimes used to determine the necessity of treatment, and a spectrofluorometric analysis of the wool was tested. Shepherds may also detect lambs with poor, medium and good body conditions, on the basis of experience. In our study, the three estimators for gastrointestinal parasites were not related to parasite faecal egg or oocyste counts, which are the usual laboratory tools for assessing infection.

Homeopathic treatments, widely used in organic farming, remain unevaluated. Assessment is difficult since the individuals that respond to treatment are not identified, although it is central to the concept of homeopathic treatment. Classifying lambs into those to be treated (since they have high parasitic infection rate or poor production performances) or that should remain untreated (in other words, even when treated, they will not benefit from treatment) is not simple. The identification of lambs to be treated can be based on parasitological examinations (eggs per gram of faeces), clinical (anaemia or diarrhoea)or production-related (weight gain) results. The classification of lambs was a posteriori and based on dendrograms using UPGMA (unweighted pairwise grouping on arithmetic average) and Gower’s similarity index. Parasitological, clinical and production identifiers were used for assessing the efficacy of Teucrium marum (9 CH) on digestive-tract strongyles. There was no reduction in gastro-intestinal infection in lambs with high infection rates or poor live weight gain.

Synthetic overview of the second workshop : Evaluation and improvement of the sustainability of organic farming.