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Introduction Student-athletes face unique demands that heighten vulnerability to both sleep and mental health problems. Circadian preference (CP) describes an individuals’ preferred timing for sleep and wake activity, with this conceived as a continuum between the extremes of morningness and eveningness. CP has been shown to influence both sleep and mental health, with greater eveningness preference generally associating with worse outcomes. However, these relationships are understudied in student-athletes. Thus, this investigation was designed to assess the influence of CP on sleep, depression, and anxiety in Canadian student-athletes. Methods Data were obtained throughout the academic semester from Canadian institutions, with student-athletes completing the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ), General Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). ASSQ captured sleep health characteristics and CP, while GAD-7 and PHQ-9 assessed anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. ASSQ CP response options were Definitely-Morning, Morning, Evening, or Definitely-Evening as response options, and was coded on a 0-3 scale, with higher values representing increasing eveningness preference. Linear regression estimated associations of CP with sleep, depression, and anxiety. Adjusted regressions controlled for age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sport type. Results Sample included 559 Canadian student-athletes (Average Age = 18.9 ± 3.21 years; Percentage Women = 53%; Percentage White = 79.1%) from eight different sports. Regarding CP, 11.4% reported Definitely-Morning, 27.0% reported Morning, 41.8% reported Evening, and 19.8% reported Definitely-Evening. Greater eveningness preference significantly associated with worse overall sleep difficulties (padjusted < 0.0001), longer sleep latency (padjusted < 0.0001), reduced sleep satisfaction (padjusted < 0.0001), more prolonged sleep inertia (padjusted < 0.0001), more daytime naps (padjusted = 0.01), and more severe depressive symptomatology (padjusted = 0.0006). Conclusion Greater eveningness in a sample of Canadian student-athletes associated with worse sleep and psychological characteristics, including overall sleep difficulty, sleep latency, sleep satisfaction, sleep inertia, daytime napping, and depressive symptom severity. The results of this study provide compelling evidence that eveningness CP may predict poor mental and sleep health outcomes in student-athletes. Thus, further attention to circadian characteristics of student-athletes is warranted. Additionally, modifications to training schedules and team routines could be considered as preventative strategies for mental and sleep health problems. Support (if any) Mitacs #IT23469

Introduction Mental health issues are a leading cause of decreased academic and athletic performances when left untreated. Recently, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) have highlighted the fundamental importance of mental health among young athletes. Sleep represents a core feature of mental health, and student-athletes represent a vulnerable population for sleep restriction and disruption due to the demands of their courseload and training schedule. This investigation was performed to identify differences in sleep and mental health across gender, race/ethnicity, and sport type. Methods Data were obtained throughout the academic semester from Canadian institutions, with student-athletes completing the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ), General Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). ASSQ captured sleep and circadian health, while GAD-7 and PHQ-9 assessed anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. Linear regression determined gender, race/ethnicity, and sport type differences across ASSQ sleep problems score, ASSQ sleep items, GAD-7 score, PHQ-9 score, and PHQ-9 item #9 (suicidal ideation). Results Final sample (N=559) was 53.0% female, 79.1% white, comprised of young individual (Mean Age = 18.9 ± 3.21), and included student-athletes from basketball, field-hockey, football, ice-hockey, soccer, volleyball, track & field and swimming. Females reported more overall sleep difficulties (p=0.01), medication use (p=0.04) and WASO (p=0.001) compared to males. Females also reported higher anxiety (p < 0.0001), depression (p< 0.0001), and suicidal ideation (p=0.03). Significant variance in total sleep time (TST) (p=0.001) and sleep satisfaction (p=0.04) was observed across race/ethnicity, with student-athletes identifying as Black or African American reporting the lowest TST, while Asian or Pacific Islander student-athletes reported the lowest sleep satisfaction. Significant variance in sleep difficulties score (p< 0.0001), TST (p < 0.0001), and satisfaction (p< 0.0001), as well as anxiety (p < 0.0001) and depression (p< 0.0001) was observed across sport type. Football student-athletes reported the highest sleep difficulties score, and lowest TST satisfaction. Field-hockey student-athletes reported the highest anxiety and depression. Conclusion Results suggest that sleep and mental health challenges present differently across gender, race/ethnicity, and sport type. Clarifying these unique and specific challenges to student-athlete sleep and mental health is necessary to enhance and personalize interventions. Support (if any) Mitacs #IT23469

Virtual reality surgical simulators have facilitated surgical education by providing a safe training environment. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been employed to assess neuroelectric activity during surgical performance. Machine learning (ML) has been applied to analyze EEG data split into frequency bands. Although EEG is widely used in fields requiring expert performance, it has yet been used to classify surgical expertise. Thus, the goals of this study were to (a) develop an ML model to accurately differentiate skilled and less-skilled performance using EEG data recorded during a simulated surgery, (b) explore the relative importance of each EEG bandwidth to expertise, and (c) analyze differences in EEG band powers between skilled and less-skilled individuals. We hypothesized that EEG recordings during a virtual reality surgery task would accurately predict the expertise level of the participant. Twenty-one participants performed three simulated brain tumor resection procedures on the NeuroVR™ platform (CAE Healthcare, Montreal, Canada) while EEG data was recorded. Participants were divided into 2 groups. The skilled group was composed of five neurosurgeons and five senior neurosurgical residents (PGY4-6), and the less-skilled group was composed of six junior residents (PGY1-3) and five medical students. A total of 13 metrics from EEG frequency bands and ratios (e.g., alpha, theta/beta ratio) were generated. Seven ML model types were trained using EEG activity to differentiate between skilled and less-skilled groups. The artificial neural network achieved the highest testing accuracy of 100% (AUROC = 1.0). Model interpretation via Shapley analysis identified low alpha (8-10 Hz) as the most important metric for classifying expertise. Skilled surgeons displayed higher (p = 0.044) low-alpha than the less-skilled group. Furthermore, skilled surgeons displayed significantly lower TBR (p = 0.048) and significantly higher beta (13-30 Hz, p = 0.049), beta 1 (15-18 Hz, p = 0.014), and beta 2 (19-22 Hz, p = 0.015), thus establishing these metrics as important markers of expertise. ACGME CORE COMPETENCIES: Practice-Based Learning and Improvement.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback training (NFT) and biofeedback training (BFT) intervention on ice hockey shooting performance. Specifically, the purpose was to examine (a) whether an NFT/BFT program could improve ice hockey shooting performance, (b) whether the implementation of an SMR-NFT intervention leads to neurological adaptations during performance, and (c) whether such neurological changes account for improvement in shooting performance. Using a longitudinal stratified random control design, results demonstrated that while both SMR-NFT/BFT and control groups improved performance, the rate of improvement for the SMR-NFT/BFT group was significantly higher than the control. Participants in the SMR-NFT/BFT group demonstrated the ability to significantly increase SMR power from pre- to postintervention in the lab. However, no significant changes in SMR power were found during shooting performance. This result may be suggestive of differing cortical activity present during motor-skill preparation.

The Canadian National Coaching Certification Program (NCCP) redesigned its coaching education programmes to utilise a learner-centred, problem-based approach. The purpose of this paper is to document the design, delivery, and subjective assessment of this large-scale coach education programme through the perspectives of the different actors, with a special focus on the coach developers (CDs) as an essential and important group within the coach education system. A constructivist view of learning, supported by the work of Jennifer Moon on the impact of short courses and workshops, guided this work. Part 1 of the results provides an overview of the studies conducted on the revised NCCP. Part 2 examines the perspectives of 26 CDs concerning their training and experiences delivering the redesigned NCCP. Conclusions include the importance of considering the cognitive structures of the CDs and coach learners; issues related to covering the module content versus addressing coaches’ learning needs; ensuring adequate time for questions and reflection to enable deep learning; specific training for CDs to support post-workshop learning; and the importance of taking a systems approach to coach development that considers all the actors involved in a national programme being delivered at the provincial/territorial or sport organisational level.

To investigate the differences in sleep, sleepiness, and physical activity (PA) between young adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing controls (TDC).Actigraphic data and questionnaires on sleep, sleepiness, and PA were compared between fifteen adults with ASD (ADOS range 7-19; ages 22.8 ± 4.5 years) and TDC.In comparison to the TDC group, the ASD group slept longer on average per night but took longer to fall asleep. In relationship to PA levels, the objective PA levels were lower in the ASD group than the TDC group. Fewer wake minutes during the sleep period in the ASD sample were associated with more PA the following day.The findings support previous research that demonstrates differences in sleep parameters and PA between ASD and TDC. Interventions aimed at increasing PA in an ASD population may be beneficial for improved sleep.

Qualitative researchers in the social sciences have been benefitting from using poetic forms to analyse and represent their research findings for about two decades now and, while still not common, recently noted that sensory research has made a debut in sport. In line with Fitzgerald’s recommendation that voice be given to young people living with disabilities, the following poems were co-constructed from the words of 15 parasport athletes from 10 sports (individual and team) combined with the researchers’ interpretation. As participants in sport for persons with physical disabilities, the athletes were asked to talk about the characteristics of a successful coach. The poems touch on traits such as empathy, understanding of disabilities, good listening skills and trying to put oneself in the shoes of the athlete. Rather than telling, the poems hope to show readers what is important for coaching disability sport. Following the poems, a reflective note is offered for each poem. While couched in the ...

The sport coaching literature on coaching athletes with disabilities is relatively nascent but researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the domain (e.g., Cregan, Bloom, & Reid. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 78(4):339–350, 2007; Culver & Werthner. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 10(2):167–175, 2017; McMaster & Culver. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health 4(2):226–243, 2012; Duarte & Culver. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 26(4):441–456, 2014). While the majority of the current research has examined the coaching of athletes with physical disabilities, there is a small body of research that looks at coaching athletes with intellectual disabilities. In this chapter, we will describe the context of disability sport coaching and discuss what the current research is telling us. Moreover, we will provide an overview of a selection of international coach education programs for coaches in disability sport and explore the existing landscape of disability sport coaches’ learning opportunities (or lack thereof). Examples of the countries reviewed include Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Australia, China, Northern Ireland, New Zealand, Brazil. This section is concluded with a synthesis of the issues present across coach education for disability sport. Finally, we introduce a coach development model and an accompanying vignette to illustrate a pathway for continued learning. This model may enable disability sport coaches to maximize their learning experiences and continue to develop their practices, despite there being a dearth of formal coach education programs. Our hope is that these insights inspire growth in coaches and sport organizations involved in disability sport to better serve this community.

OBJECTIVE Severe bleeding during neurosurgical operations can result in acute stress affecting the bimanual psychomotor performance of the operator, leading to surgical error and an adverse patient outcome. Objective methods to assess the influence of acute stress on neurosurgical bimanual psychomotor performance have not been developed. Virtual reality simulators, such as NeuroTouch, allow the testing of acute stress on psychomotor performance in risk-free environments. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the impact of a simulated stressful virtual reality tumor resection scenario by utilizing NeuroTouch to answer 2 questions: 1) What is the impact of acute stress on bimanual psychomotor performance during the resection of simulated tumors? 2) Does acute stress influence bimanual psychomotor performance immediately following the stressful episode? METHODS Study participants included 6 neurosurgeons, 6 senior and 6 junior neurosurgical residents, and 6 medical students. Participants resected a total of 6 simulated tumors, 1 of which (Tumor 4) involved uncontrollable “intraoperative” bleeding resulting in simulated cardiac arrest and thus providing the acute stress scenario. Tier 1 metrics included extent of blood loss, percentage of tumor resected, and “normal” brain tissue volume removed. Tier 2 metrics included simulated suction device (sucker) and ultrasonic aspirator total tip path length, as well as the sum and maximum forces applied in using these instruments. Advanced Tier 2 metrics included efficiency index, coordination index, ultrasonic aspirator path length index, and ultrasonic aspirator bimanual forces ratio. All metrics were assessed before, during, and after the stressful scenario. RESULTS The stress scenario caused expected significant increases in blood loss in all participant groups. Extent of tumor resected and brain volume removed decreased in the junior resident and medical student groups. Sucker total tip path length increased in the neurosurgeon group, whereas sucker forces increased in the senior resident group. Psychomotor performance on advanced Tier 2 metrics was altered during the stress scenario in all participant groups. Performance on all advanced Tier 2 metrics returned to pre-stress levels in the post–stress scenario tumor resections. CONCLUSIONS Results demonstrated that acute stress initiated by simulated severe intraoperative bleeding significantly decreases bimanual psychomotor performance during the acute stressful episode. The simulated intraoperative bleeding event had no significant influence on the advanced Tier 2 metrics monitored during the immediate post-stress operative performance.

The purpose of this study was to explore the perceived outcomes of a biofeedback and neurofeedback training intervention with high performance athletes. Five Olympic level athletes preparing for world championships and the 2012 Olympic Games took part in a 20 session intervention over the period of one year. At the completion of the intervention, a semistructured interview was conducted with each athlete. The athletes indicated that they became more self-aware, were better able to self-regulate both their physiological and psychological states, developed a greater sense of personal control, and a greater understanding of skills inherent in the field of sport psychology. Three of the athletes made the Canadian Olympic team for the 2012 Olympic Games and two of those athletes won bronze medals. The present study suggests that biofeedback and neurofeedback training may be useful in enabling athletes to perform optimally, in both training and competition, on a consistent basis.

Objective Current selection methods for neurosurgical residents fail to include objective measurements of bimanual psychomotor performance. Advancements in computer-based simulation provide opportunities to assess cognitive and psychomotor skills in surgically naive populations during complex simulated neurosurgical tasks in risk-free environments. This pilot study was designed to answer 3 questions: (1) What are the differences in bimanual psychomotor performance among neurosurgical residency applicants using NeuroTouch? (2) Are there exceptionally skilled medical students in the applicant cohort? and (3) Is there an influence of previous surgical exposure on surgical performance? Design Participants were instructed to remove 3 simulated brain tumors with identical visual appearance, stiffness, and random bleeding points. Validated tier 1, tier 2, and advanced tier 2 metrics were used to assess bimanual psychomotor performance. Demographic data included weeks of neurosurgical elective and prior operative exposure. Setting This pilot study was carried out at the McGill Neurosurgical Simulation Research and Training Center immediately following neurosurgical residency interviews at McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Participants All 17 medical students interviewed were asked to participate, of which 16 agreed. Results Performances were clustered in definable top, middle, and bottom groups with significant differences for all metrics. Increased time spent playing music, increased applicant self-evaluated technical skills, high self-ratings of confidence, and increased skin closures statistically influenced performance on univariate analysis. A trend for both self-rated increased operating room confidence and increased weeks of neurosurgical exposure to increased blood loss was seen in multivariate analysis. Conclusions Simulation technology identifies neurosurgical residency applicants with differing levels of technical ability. These results provide information for studies being developed for longitudinal studies on the acquisition, development, and maintenance of psychomotor skills. Technical abilities customized training programs that maximize individual resident bimanual psychomotor training dependant on continuously updated and validated metrics from virtual reality simulation studies should be explored.

Yoga has demonstrated some promising impacts on mental health and well-being. The ability to focus is a possible mechanism through which yoga practice influences mental health and well-being. Furthermore, there are relatively few empirical studies that have explored the experience of maintaining focus or the process of developing this capacity within yoga. This study explored focus in terms of its development within the practice of yoga. The two objectives of the study were: (1) to examine the experience of focus in individuals with extensive accumulated practice, and (2) to learn how they developed this ability to focus. Eight participants were selected based on duration and frequency of their practice. Two one-hour interviews were conducted with each participant in a semi-structured format and qualitative thematic analysis was used. The findings are discussed within two main themes: the practice and the nature of yogic awareness. Results are discussed in relation to the enhancement of mental hea...

The purpose of this qualitative research was to develop a detailed description of leadership in contemporary Canadian Olympic medal-winning sport to better understand how Olympic podium performances are developed. The integrated research model of Olympic podium performance acted as a theoretical framework and starting point for inquiry. Semi-structured personal interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of ten coaches and twelve athletes who together won gold or silver medals in the 2010 winter Olympic Games. The interview questions were designed to assess the theoretical framework of Olympic medal-winning leadership as well as allow for new themes to emerge from the interview process. Including both coach and athlete perspectives in this research created an opportunity for a nuanced portrait of leadership. Interpretive thematic analysis of the 22 interviews revealed three major themes. Leadership was found to be demanding, relational and solution-focused for all the coaches and a strong consensus was found between the coach and athlete descriptions of leadership. Recommendations are suggested for future research and the development of effective coach leadership behaviours for coaches in the Olympic sport context.

This study was designed to explore the relationship between elite athletes' self-regulation ability and their ranking at the world level using psychophysiological stress assessment profiling. Fifteen elite level athletes' psychophysiological stress response patterns were recorded during a nine-stage stress assessment. Respiration rate, heart rate, heart rate variability, skin conductance, peripheral body temperature, and electromyograph (trapezius and frontalis) were monitored. There was a significant correlation between elite athletes' overall self-regulation ability and their ranking at the world level, meaning that the better the overall self-regulation ability of the athlete, the better the world ranking. In addition, a multiple regression analysis indicated that self-regulation accounted for 76% of the variance in world ranking. Our results suggest the existence of a relationship between elite athletes' overall self-regulation ability and their ranking at the world level. Therefore, the results of this study have important implications for training of optimal psychophysiological self-regulation in athletes.

The difference between success and failure in 200-m canoe and kayak events is measured in milliseconds. The gold medal for the 200-m kayak in the Summer 2012 Olympic Games in London was won by a margin of 294 milliseconds, and the difference between winning a bronze medal and not reaching the podium was merely 31 milliseconds. In addition to physical fitness, strength, and technique, the ability to focus effectively and manage arousal is crucial to the ability to react quickly off the start. Conversely, the inability to manage arousal and focus has been shown to reduce reaction time (RT) and, in extreme cases, lead to “choking.” Research in sport psychology and psychophysiology has identified multiple psychological, physiological, and neurological characteristics that underlie peak performance. Although many of the skills and characteristics identified in the research are common to most peak performers, it is also well known that each athlete's optimal performance zone for competition is unique. For athletes, identifying these individual zones of optimal physical, psychological, physiological, and neurological functioning can be elusive and difficult to quantify. Existing technology in bio- and neurofeedback presents a unique opportunity for athletes and researchers to explore what individual peak performance looks like both physiologically and neurologically. Thus, the purpose of this case analysis was to explore the psychophysiological differences of a 200-m canoe athlete between his best and worst reaction times.

Past research has described reflection as a process of thinking anew about already existing knowledge and experiences. More recently, reflection has also been referred to as a way of making sense of experience in complex situations. Research in coach learning has suggested that one of the ways coaches’ learn is by reflecting on their coaching practice. The purpose of the present study was to explore how four parasport coaches used reflection to help them learn and develop as coaches. The findings are discussed in light of the context of parasport and illustrated by four themes: reflecting on educational experiences, reflecting with a ‘lens of adaptability’, reflecting with others, and the relevance of the timing and depth of reflection, as coaches reported using reflection ‘before, during and after’ their coaching experiences. Given the apparent importance of reflection for parasport coaches, recommendations are suggested for how reflective practice might be nurtured.

High quality education programs across the globe could help coaching move forward as a profession. Although there have been suggestions to improve sports coaching education programs by integrating theory and practice through alternative learning approaches such as mentoring and critical refection (Armour, 2010; Cushion, Armour, & Jones, 2003), it is unclear whether such approaches have been implemented in coach education programs and how different countries are educating their coaches. The purpose of this paper is to describe how seven high performance coach education programs are educating coaches and to what extent they are employing alternative learning approaches. The goals, curricula, and pedagogical approaches are described and implications for the professionalization of coaching are discussed.

The complex process of sport coaching is a dynamic and evolving practice that develops over a long period of time. As such, a useful constructivist perspective on lifelong learning is Jarvis’ (2006, 2009) theory of human learning. According to Jarvis, how people learn is at the core of understanding how we can best support educational development. The purpose of the current study is to explore the lifelong learning of one parasport coach who stood out in his feld, and how his coaching practice evolved and developed throughout his life. A thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was used to extract themes and examples from three two-hour interviews as well as interviews with key collaborators in his coaching network. The findings reveal a coach whose coaching practice is founded on pragmatic problem solving in the face of a lack in resources; an investment in formal and nonformal adapted activity education at the start of his parasport career; and observation, communication, and relationship-building with his athletes and the parasport community. Suggestions are provided for coach developers on how they might invest resources and create learning opportunities for coaches of athletes with a disability.

The cover of this issue of Biofeedback shows Canadian Mark de Jonge, K1 200-m bronze medalist at the summer 2012 Olympic Games in London and World Champion in 2015 in the sport of CanoeKayak (credit to Jeff Cooke for the photo).

There are few empirical studies that demonstrate how values are developed and how they are linked to coaching actions. There can be a discrepancy between the statement of coaches’ values and their actual coaching actions. In order to examine how coaching actions are influenced by values that are developed over a lifetime, the purpose of this article is to first describe a female hockey coach’s approach to coaching using five key coaching actions, then identify the underlying values that influenced those actions, and then explore how these values were developed in different experiences throughout her life. A time-oriented network analysis was conducted based on four semi-structured, in-depth interviews with the coach. The results present five key coaching actions: (a) organizing coach education programmes for athletes, (b) creating groups to help athletes bond, (c) bringing in experts from various domains, (d) asking athletes to reflect on attitudes and goals, and (e) giving athletes playing time based on ...

The research on coach learning and development deals with the classification of the sources from which coaches learn, and more recently, with the identification of learning being an idiosyncratic process in which there are variations in coaches’ learning paths. From a constructivist view, learning may be seen as a process of becoming: a person engages in social situations throughout life that are transformed cognitively, emotively and/or practically, and integrated into the person’s biography so that the person becomes more experienced. ‘Episodic experiences’, when they are meaningful to individuals, may result in considerable change to the way that individuals perceive what they know, and have the potential to influence their perception on future learning. The purpose of this article is to illustrate how such meaningful episodic experiences can have an important influence on an individual coach’s process of becoming an experienced coach. Through the use of non-fictional vignettes, we explore how five Can...

Learning is about transforming the content of experiences cognitively, emotively, and/or practically (Jarvis 2006). For Moon (2001), in order for there to be impact on practice, learning must include a reflective process. The purpose of this study was to understand coaches' perceptions of the impact of two coach education modules on their coaching practice. Data were collected through non-participant observations and interviews with 11 coaches within two weeks of their participation in the modules, and again four to six months later. Coaches' perceptions of the impact of the modules on their practice varied. For some coaches, their practice was validated through a reflective process that confirmed their existing coaching. Other coaches, who said they were changing some aspects of their practice, engaged in reflective learning that transformed cognitively, emotively, and practically the content of their experiences. For these coaches, deep learning appeared to occur, allowing them to change, for example, h...

Literature has shown that research on coaches of athletes with a physical disability is lacking. The purpose of this study is to examine the learning experiences of coaches in disability sport. Five coaches participated in this study. Data included two semi-structured interviews and two non-participant observation sessions with each coach. Thematic analysis was employed using theory of human learning as a theoretical framework. Results indicated three main themes influencing the coaches’ learning and development: (a) their biographies, (b) how they chose to learn (i.e. through formal, non-formal and informal learning situations) and (c) the learning opportunities provided by their sport. The coaches noted the usefulness of varied learning situations, and identified a lack of resources and few non-formal and formal learning opportunities specific to disability sport.

Using Jarvis’ (2006) psychosocial perspective of human learning, we explore how the career choices and the subsequent coaching approaches of five Canadian women coaches have been influenced by their primary and secondary socialization. A content analysis was performed to identify how coaches learned in their primary socialization with their family, and in their secondary socialization at school and in their sport experiences. The findings indicate that the learning situations in their primary and secondary socialization influence the coaches’ career choices and their subsequent coaching approaches. These findings have implications for coaching education, enabling course developers and facilitators to understand (a) the importance of creating environments where coaches are able to critically reflect, and (b) how coaching approaches can be influenced by early life experiences.

This case study examines a sport leader's attempt to foster a coaches' community of practice in a competitive youth baseball league. It is analysed using Wenger's [8] community of practice framework. Interviews were conducted with seven participants including the sport leader (technical director), the league manager, and five coaches. The retrospective account of time period 1 (covering four years) portrays how a visionary leader instigated changes in the sport culture to have coaches share knowledge with the common goal of developing all of the league athletes. For example, the coaches were selected for their specific expertise and were given the responsibility for the corresponding players not only on their own team but on all teams in the league. Establishing a co-operative environment in a competitive context required strong leadership and presented challenges including the alignment of all the coaches, parents, and referees. The time period 2 (covering three years), also studied retrospectively, demonstrates that the loss of the visionary leader led to the return to a more traditional, competitive environment. Finally, the time period 3 (covering one year), which was the timeframe when the research project was conducted, shows a willingness to return to the collaborative ways of time period 1, but also the challenges in making this happen without the presence of a strong, visionary leader.

Researchers have investigated how coaches, from the recreational to the elite level of coaching, learn to coach. Many different learning situations have been identified in the research, yet the question remains: How is it that one coach's learning path emphasizes certain learning situations as key, and yet another coach's learning path emphasizes quite different situations? Fifteen Canadian Olympic coaches were interviewed to better understand the coaches' idiosyncratic learning-path phenomena. The findings provide an example of: (a) how coaches within a specific and similar context, in this case Olympic level sport, can differ dramatically regarding the importance that common learning situations have played in their development, and (b) how previous learning and experiences influence what coaches choose to pay attention to and therefore choose to learn. The coaches' idiosyncratic learning paths are also discussed in terms of coach development.

The purpose of this paper is to present, using Moon’s (1999, 2004) generic view of learning, a new theoretical perspective in order to understand how coaches learn to coach. After presenting her main concepts, a case study of an elite Canadian coach is used to illustrate the different learning processes in three types of learning situations: mediated, unmediated, and internal. We believe this new view of how coaches learn provides a way to see coach development from the coach’s perspective and helps us understand why the path to becoming a coach is often idiosyncratic. Finally, the potential of this conceptual research framework for the study of coaches’ development, specifically at the elite/expert level, is discussed.

The doctoral experience is a period of time when students learn about research, submit a dissertation with a rigorous methodology, and contribute to the literature in the field (Hockey, 2004). However, there is arguably more that is accomplished in this time. Doctoral students' experiences have often been researched in light of their transition into an academic career as a professor. However, not all students have such defined goals within their first year. The first year of the PhD has been described as the stage in which the students begin to identify with a new role (Braxton & Baird, 2001; Hockey, 2004; Viczko & Wright, 2010). Hockey (2004) notes that during the first year, students undergo unexpected difficulty due to major changes in their educational understandings and status. There are differences in academic demands, peer support, and social interactions with faculty. Some of the changes that have been noted as potentially problematic for doctoral students include: social isolation, time constraints, the need to take individual responsibility for work, the need to feel a sense of intellectual self-worth, and the need to have a solid relationship with their supervisor, particularly in terms of mutually shared expectations (Hockey, 2004). While reading about these difficulties may help other doctoral students feel a sense of relief and communion, these issues must all be understood as differing in importance depending on the personal context of the student, which plays a major role in how well the student adjusts to the new status. The level of adjustment is also dependent on the student's biography when entering the PhD process, which, according to Hockey (2004), is idiosyncratic and complex. Not all students necessarily start their doctorate program with the intent of becoming a professor. Sweitzer (2009) describes two types of students. There are those who enter the program knowing that they want to get jobs as professors and publish in top-tier journals. They often describe academic relationships as the only important aspect of success. There are also those students who are more interested in individual development and learning. They may begin to develop professional identities as future faculty members but do not necessarily fit the typical prototype of a graduate student striving towards becoming a professor by the end of their first year. The latter students identify relationships with faculty, peers, family, friends, and prior business associates as important to their learning and success (Sweitzer, 2009). Other research on doctoral students indicates that social contexts within and outside of the university environment, including relationships with supervisors, peers, family, friends, and business associates, may play an important part in their development (Devenish et al., 2009; Sweitzer, 2009). Therefore, it appears that students enter their PhD programs with varied expectations, and they experience personal development through their social experiences while in the PhD programs. Indeed, Glaze (2002) suggests that the PhD experience is a period of considerable development and learning. However, it cannot be discounted that students' past experiences as well as their social context influence their development and learning during the PhD. Jarvis (2006) proposes a theory of human learning as part of lifelong learning where individuals become more experienced as a result of engaging in social situations throughout life, the perceived content of which is integrated into their biographies. Using Jarvis' theory as a conceptual framework can help to understand how the social context and an individual's past experiences over the course of his or her lifetime influence the learning that occurs during the timeframe of the PhD. The concept of biography is important for Jarvis (2006, 2009) and he defines it as "the outcome of a lifetime" (Jarvis, 2006, p. 73). He further explains that: We are constructing our own biography whenever we learn--whilst we live our biography is an unfinished product constantly undergoing change and development--either through experiences that we self-initiate or else through experiences which are initiated by others. …

Excessive stress and tension are major threats to optimal athletic performance. The goal of this project was to help the athletes optimize the management of their stress response through self-awareness and self-regulation of the activation levels of their autonomic and central nervous systems. Fifteen elite athletes preparing for the Vancouver 2010 Olympics underwent an EEG and psychophysiological stress assessment, as well as a bio–neurofeedback (BNFK) training intervention. Both athletes and coaches reported that the bio–neurofeedback intervention helped the athletes in managing the stress of training and competition and was a factor in producing better performances.

Background: Current selection methods for neurosurgical residents lack objective measurements of psychomotor performance. This pilot study was designed to answer three questions: 1) What are the differences in bimanual psychomotor performance among neurosurgical residency applicants using the NeuroVR (formerly NeuroTouch) neurosurgical simulator? 2) Are there exceptionally skilled medical student applicants? 3) Does previous surgical exposure influence surgical performance? Methods: Medical students attending neurosurgery residency interviews at McGill University were asked to participate. Participants were instructed to remove 3 simulated brain tumors. Validated tier 1, tier 2, and advanced tier 2 metrics were utilized to assess bimanual psychomotor performance. Demographic data included weeks of neurosurgical elective and prior operative exposure. Results: Sixteen of 17 neurosurgical applicants (94%) participated. Performances clustered in definable top, middle, and bottom groups with significant differences for all metrics. Increased time spent playing music, increase applicant self-evaluated technical skills, high self-ratings of confidence and increased skin closures statistically influenced performance on univariate analysis. A trend for both self-rated increased operating room confidence and increased weeks of neurosurgical exposure to increase blood loss was seen in multivariate analysis. Conclusions: Simulation technology identifies neurosurgical residency applicants at the extremes of technical ability and extrinsic and intrinsic applicant factors appear to influence performance.

Background: The availability of virtual reality (VR) surgical simulators affords the opportunity to assess the influence of stress on neurosurgical operative performance in a controlled laboratory environment. This study sought to examine the effect of a stressful VR neurosurgical task on the subjective anxiety ratings of participants with varying levels of surgical expertise. Methods: Twenty four participants comprised of six staff neurosurgeons, six senior neurosurgical residents (PGY4-6), six junior neurosurgical residents (PGY1-3), and six senior medical students took part in a bimanual VR tumor removal task with a component of sudden uncontrollable intra-operative bleeding. State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) questionnaires were completed immediately pre and post the stress stimulus. The STAI questionnaire consisted of six items (calm, tense, upset, relaxed, content and worried) measured on a Likert scale. Results: Significant increases in subjective anxiety ratings were noted in junior residents (p=0.005) and medical students (p=0.025) while no significant changes were observed for staff and senior neurosurgical residents. Conclusions: Staff and senior residents more effectively mitigate stress compared to junior colleagues in a VR operative environment. Further physiological correlates are needed to determine whether this increased anxiety is paralleled by physiological arousal and altered surgical performance.

Background: Objective methods to assess the influence of significant stress on neurosurgical bimanual psychomotor performance have not been developed. We utilized NeuroTouch, a virtual reality simulator, to answer two questions: 1) What is the impact of significant stress on bimanual psychomotor performance during the resection of a simulated tumor? 2) Does stress influence performance immediately following the stressful episode? Methods: Uncontrollable ‘intraoperative’ bleeding during one of the tumor resections resulting in simulated patient cardiac arrest served as the acute stressor. Six neurosurgeons, 6 senior and 6 junior neurosurgical residents and 6 senior medical students were studied. The evaluated advanced tier 2 metrics were efficiency index, ultrasonic aspirator path length index, suction coordination index and ultrasonic aspirator bimanual forces ratio. Results: The stress scenario significantly decreased the efficiency index of all groups and significantly decreased performance for many groups for suction coordination index and ultrasonic aspirator path length index. Performance in all advanced tier 2 metrics returned to pre-stress levels in post stress resection scenarios. Conclusions: Our results are consistent with the concept that acute stress initiated by severe intraoperative bleeding significantly decreases bimanual psychomotor performance during the acute episode but had no significant influence on immediate post stress operative performance.

Self-regulation has been defined as the modulation of thoughts, affects and behaviours, involving deliberate as well as automated mechanisms. It is related to emotion regulation and planning as well as to the control of one’s own behaviour. Specifically, emotion regulation is an individual-specific process that can positively influence task execution, therefore enabling athletes to optimise their sport performance. In this chapter we present the state of the art of technology-based self-regulation interventions in sport performance. Using technology implies the adoption of a holistic and psychophysiological perspective in the study of body–mind interaction processes and their interplay with the environment. This dynamic perspective is in turn grounded on the “enactive approach”, which considers that the human mind is embodied in the organism and embedded in the world. One of the described technologies is virtual reality, which enables athletes to learn how to regulate emotions and optimise athletic performance by “enriching” their physical environment. For a more comprehensive holistic overview, we then present the more traditional and well-established biofeedback and neurofeedback training interventions. We also consider brain stimulation and a new neuromodulation tool, transcutaneous vagal-nerve stimulation (tVNS), which directly influences cognitive processes and modulates flow experience. The chapter concludes with a discussion about the ethical implications of the described technologies.