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Magnetite is an important ore and gangue mineral in many economic deposits, and the ability to model the modal magnetite abundance from cost-effective data, such as hyperspectral reflectance spectra, has widespread applications. However, magnetite reflectance spectra collected with field and drill core sensors, which are increasingly used by the mineral resources industry, are characterised by very broad and poorly defined diagnostic features. Magnetite content could be modelled indirectly from mixed mineral spectra, but these efforts have been limited by the lack of quantified training datasets of mixed mineral assemblages. We created two hyperspectral libraries (n=104) of magnetite mixed with quartz, chlorite, and siderite collected from two different wavelength ranges to address this knowledge gap. Mineral ratios and particle size variation, which are important when modelling hyperspectral data, were determined using quantitative X-ray diffraction (QXRD) and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis. Hyperspectral data were acquired across the visible-near, shortwave, mid to thermal infrared (VNIR-SWIR-MIR-TIR, 380-16669 nm) wavelength range, using HyLogger-3 and Bruker Vertex 80v Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) instruments. Predictive modelling was carried out using CSIRO's The Spectral Geologist (TSG) software partial least squares (PLS) modelling tool, which allows for modelling of one variable (e.g., magnetite wt%) from another (e.g., reflectance spectra) via calibration using a training dataset (magnetite mixture spectral library), and subsequent model validation using other hyperspectral data (e.g., from drillhole) of a similar wavelength range. Use of magnetite mixture PLS calibration enabled prediction of magnetite wt% from drill core VNIR-SWIR data that that matches the Fe2O3 assay and magnetic susceptibility detected from the core. We also noted several mineral diagnostic features in the MIR wavelength region, which can provide lower detection limits and an improvement in the accuracy of predictive modelling for magnetite and gangue minerals in the future., Open-Access Online Publication: May 31, 2023

The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory Project (ISL) is located in Western Australia and has two main objectives related to monitoring leaks from a CO2 storage complex by controlled-release experiments: 1) improving the monitorability of gaseous CO2 accumulations at intermediate depth, and 2) assessing the impact of faults on CO2 migration. A first test at the In-situ Lab has evaluated the ability to monitor and detect unwanted leakage of CO2 from a storage complex in a major fault zone. The ISL consists of three instrumented wells up to 400 m deep: 1) Harvey-2 used primarily for gaseous CO2 injection, 2) ISL OB-1, a fibreglass geophysical monitoring well with behind-casing instrumentation, and 3) a shallow (27 m) groundwater well for fluid sampling. A controlled-release test injected 38 tonnes of CO2 between 336-342 m depth in February 2019, and the gas was monitored by a wide range of downhole and surface monitoring technologies. CO2 reached the ISL OB-1 monitoring well (7 m away) after approximately 1.5 days and an injection volume of 5 tonnes. Evidence of arrival was determined by distributed temperature sensing and the CO2 plume was detected also by borehole seismic after injection of as little as 7 tonnes. Observations suggest that the fault zone did not alter the CO2 migration along bedding at the scale and depth of the experiment. No vertical CO2 migration was detected beyond the perforated injection interval; no notable changes were observed in groundwater quality or soil gas chemistry during and post injection. The early detection of significantly less than 38 tonnes of CO2 injected into the shallow subsurface demonstrates rapid and sensitive monitorability of potential leaks in the overburden of a commercial-scale storage project, prior to reaching shallow groundwater, soil zones or the atmosphere. The ISL is a unique and enduring research facility at which monitoring technologies will be further developed and tested for increasing public and regulator confidence in the ability to detect potential CO2 leakage at shallow to intermediate depth.

The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory has been a world first injection of CO2 into a large faulted zone at depth. A total of 38 tonnes of CO2 was injected into the F10 fault zone at approximately 330 m depth and the process monitored in detail. The site uses a well, Harvey-2, in SW Western Australia (the South West Hub CCS Project area). The top 400 m section of Harvey-2 was available for injection and instrumentation. An observation well, ISL OB-1 (400 m depth) was drilled 7 m to the north east of Harvey-2. ISL OB-1 well was cased with fibreglass to provide greater monitoring options. The CSIRO In-Situ Laboratory was designed to integrate existing facilities and infrastructure from the South West Hub CCS Project managed by the West Australian Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety. While new equipment was deployed for this specific project, the site facilities were complemented by a range of mobile deployable equipment from the National Geosequestration Laboratory (NGL). The geology of the area investigated poses interesting challenges: a large fault (F10) is estimated to have up to 1000 m throw overall, the presence of packages of paleosols rather than a contiguous mudstone seal, and a 1500 m vertical thickness of Triassic sandstone as the potential commercial storage interval. This unique site provides abundant opportunities for testing more challenging geological environments for carbon storage than at other sites. While details of this first project are described elsewhere, lessons were learned during the development and execution of the project. A rigorous risk register was developed to manage project risk, but not all events encountered were foreseen. This paper describes some of the challenges encountered and the team's response. Relocation of the project site due to changes in landholder ownership) and other sensitivities resulted in the need for rapid replanning of activities at short notice resulting in the development of the site at Harvey-2. The relocation allowed other research questions to be addressed through new activities, such as the ability to consider a shallow/controlled release experiment in an extensive fault zone, but this replanning did cause some timing stress. The first test at the In-Situ Laboratory was reconfigured to address some of those knowledge gaps that shallow/controlled release experiments had yet to address. Novel approaches to drilling and completing the monitoring well also threw up unanticipated difficulties. Loss of containment from the wellbore also posed significant challenges, and the team's response to this unintended release of gas and water from the monitoring well at the conclusion of the field experiment will be discussed. Other challenges that we encountered, their impacts, and our response are also catalogued here (Table 1 and below) to enable broad knowledge exchange.