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The number of children suffering from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) is rising globally. Therefore, there is an urgent need to acquire a better understanding of the genetic factors and molecular mechanisms related to the pathogenesis of CVDs in order to develop new prevention and treatment strategies for the future. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) constitute a class of small non-coding RNA fragments that range from 17 to 25 nucleotides in length and play an essential role in regulating gene expression, controlling an abundance of biological aspects of cell life, such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, thus affecting immune response, stem cell growth, ageing and haematopoiesis. In recent years, the concept of miRNAs as diagnostic markers allowing discrimination between healthy individuals and those affected by CVDs entered the purview of academic debate. In this review, we aimed to systematise available information regarding miRNAs associated with arrhythmias, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis and congenital heart diseases in children. We focused on the targeted genes and metabolic pathways influenced by those particular miRNAs, and finally, tried to determine the future of miRNAs as novel biomarkers of CVD.

Recent years have confirmed the importance of oxidative stress and biomarkers of inflammation in estimating the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and explaining not fully understood pathogenesis of diabetic macroangiopathy. We aimed to analyze the relation between the intima-media thickness (IMT) of common carotid arteries and the occurrence of classical cardiovascular risk factors, together with the newly proposed biomarkers of CVD risk (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), myeloperoxidase (MPO), adiponectin, N-terminal-pro B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and vitamin D) in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D) recognized in screening tests to present early stages of microvascular complications (VC). The study group consisted of 50 adolescents and young adults with T1D, mean age 17.1 years (10-26 age range), including 20 patients with VC (+) and 30 VC (-). The control group (Control) consisted of 22 healthy volunteers, mean age 16.5 years (11-26 age range). In the VC (+) patients, we found a significantly higher concentration of HbA1c, lipid levels, hsCRP and NT-proBNP. BMI and blood pressure values were highest in the VC (+) group. Higher levels of MPO and lower levels of vitamin D were found in both diabetic groups vs. Control. IMT in VC (+) patients was significantly higher and correlated positively with HbA1c, hsCRP, NT-pro-BNP and negatively with vitamin D levels. In conclusion, youth with T1D and VC (+) present many abnormalities in the classical and new CVD biomarkers. hsCRP and MPO seem to be the most important markers for estimating the risk of macroangiopathy. NT-proBNP may present a possible marker of early myocardial injury in this population.

Background: Estimated monogenic diabetes (MD) prevalence increases as screening programs proceeds., Objective: To estimate prevalence of MD among Polish children., Subjects: Patients and their family members suspected of suffering from MD (defined as causative mutation in one of the Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young or permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus genes) were recruited between January 2005 and December 2015., Methods: Nationwide prevalence was estimated based on data from 6 administrative provinces (out of 16 in Poland) with high referral rates of patients (>10 per 100 000 children)., Results: During the analysis, probands from 322 of 788 screened families tested positive yielding a total of 409 children and 299 family members with MD. An average of 70 probands/year were referred. Screening success rate reached 40% over the study period. We estimated the prevalence of MD in 2015 to 7.52/100 000 children (1 in 13 000). The most frequent MODY in this group was GCK- MODY (6.88/100 000). The prevalence estimates increased nearly 2-fold since our report in 2011 (4.4/100 000). However, the figure reached a plateau because of screening saturation in 2014 what was also proven by lowering of the median age of diagnosis lowered in time (R = -0.73, P = .0172) along with shortening of the delay between clinical and genetic diagnosis (R = -0.65, P = .0417)., Conclusions: The screening for childhood MD in Poland reached a plateau phase after 10 years showing a stable prevalence estimate. The true frequency of MD in the overall population may be higher given later onset of reportedly more frequent types of MD than GCK -MODY., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Introduction: Gestational diabetes is one of the most common medical disorders and may cause numerous of maternal and foetal complications, such as: preterm births, congenital defects, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, metabolic changes, and macrosomia in neonates. One of the types of diabetes that may clinically manifest in pregnancy is GCK-MODY, caused by mutations in the glucokinase (GCK) gene., Aim of the Study: The aim of the study was to assess the impact of diabetes during pregnancy in women with GCK-MODY on their children's health outcome and to determine the clinical and biochemical characteristics of children delivered by patients with GCK-MODY., Material and Methods: Study was multicentre, involving 50 children from paediatric diabetology departments in Gdansk, Katowice, Bialystok, and Lodz. The risk of GCK-MODY was evaluated on the basis of the medical history of the patient, the clinical course of the disease, and laboratory tests performed during diagnostic procedures. Data concerning family history, mothers' health status, course of pregnancy, and perinatal period was collected., Results: The study showed that among children with glucokinase mutation, born by mothers affected with GCK-MODY, 62% received 10 points in Apgar score in the first minute of life, whereas 92% (n = 46) obtained 10 points in Apgar score in the fifth minute of life. The average age of diagnosis of GCK-MODY in children was 8.25 ±4.76 years, and the average HbA1c during diagnosis was 6.43 ±0.71%. Statis-tically significant difference between the absence of macrosomia (birth weight > 91st percentile) in children with GCK-MODY diabetes in comparison to the general paediatric population (p = 0.0229) was observed., Conclusion: According to the presented study, possible consequences of GCK-MODY during pregnancy on foetal development are generally less severe and may differ from those characteristic for other types of diabetes. Children born by mothers with diabetes should be followed up regarding glucose disorders. Further investigation of particular phenotypes of GCK-MODY, depending on the type of inherited mu-tation in mothers and their children, is required.

Introduction: Epidemiological studies performed during last decades in many European countries and in the world proved increasing incidence rate of diabetes, especially diabetes type 1 in children (DMT1). In Europe there is one of the highest diabetes incidence rate. The aim of the study was to estimate the incidence rate of diabetes type 1 in children aged 0-14 years in North-East Poland during 2005-2012 years and to analyse this rates in relation to age, gender and season of the diabetes onset., Patients and Methods: The study was performed among patients staying under care of outpatient diabetes clinic of the Department of Pediatric, Endocrinologym Diabetology with Cardilogy Division, medical University of Białystok, Poland. The DMT1 incidence rate was calculated as the number of all newly diagnosed cases per 100 000 persons 0-14 aged matched., Results: During the studied 8-years- period DMT1 was diagnosed in 306 children aged 0-14 years, 159 boys and 147 girls, in Podlasie Province. The highest number of new cases was found in 2011: 49, and 2012: 47, with the lowest number in 2005 and 2009: 32 each year. The average incidence rate in the studied period was 20,84/100 000 population, aged matched. The lowest incidence rate was found in 0-4 yrs old group: 14,59 /100 000, in 5-9 years old group was: 22,04/100 000, and was highest in 10-14 years old group: 24,94/100 000. The highest increase in incidence rate was noted in the youngest group: from 9,14/100 000 in 2005, to 23,45/100 000 in 2012. The greatest number of new recognisions was found in from November to March, and the lowest number from June to August., Conclusions: 1. The DMT1 incidence rate among children aged 0-14 years, in Podlasie Province, during 2005-2012 years was 20,84/100 000. 2. Increase in incidence rate was observed in the studied period from 15,23/100 000 in 2005 to 26,71/100 000 in 2012. The highest increase in incidence rate, 2,5 times, was fund in the youngest group, aged 0-4 years. 3. The seasonal incidence of New onset was observed with the greater number in autumn-winter months., (© Polish Society for Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology.)

Introduction: Experience with use of real-time continuous glucose monitoring systems (RT-CGMS) in teenagers with diabetes type 1 is limited, and in unselected groups of young patients did not show improvement in metabolic control., Aim of the Study: The objective of this study was to assess short-term RT-CGMS usage in teenagers with type 1 diabetes, in terms of possibility to improve metabolic control and acceptance of the system., Material and Methods: 40 subjects, aged 14.5±2 years on insulin pump therapy were included in the study. Mean diabetes duration was 6±3 years and HbA1c level before the study was 8.4±1.5%. The analysis was based on single 5-6 days long sensor usage, connected with education of the family. We analysed several parameters of glycaemic variability during the study, and HbA(1)c level before and 2 months after the study. Patients' satisfaction was assessed on the basis of a questionnaire., Results: HbA(1)c level in the whole teenagers group decreased insignificantly by 0.3%; from 8.4±1,% to 8.1±1.6%. In 24 (60%) patients we showed improvement in HbA(1)c by at least 0.5% (mean 0.9%, from 8.1±1.3% to 7.2±1.2%; p=0.03). HbA(1)c level was slightly higher in girls than in boys at the beginning of the study and a greater reduction in HbA(1)c was shown for boys. After two months the difference was significant: 8.6±1.9% in girls vs. 7.6±1.3% in boys, p=0.03. In the group with HbA(1)c decrease and in boys we demonstrated improvement in mean glycaemia and glycaemic variability parameters on the last day of the sensor usage, compared to the first day. In boys however, increased AUC <70 mg/dl/ min was noticed. The patients from the group with HbA(1)c decrease reported fewer problems with system calibration: 3.2 vs. 2.6 score, p=0.03. This group also reported higher satisfaction score connected with new knowledge: 4.0 vs. 3.5, and with quality of life: 4.1 vs. 3.6., Conclusions: Short-term usage of RT-CGMS, combined with satisfaction questionnaire performed in teenagers with diabetes type 1 can be useful in defining the group of young patients who can benefit from RT-CGMS usage in long-term metabolic control improvement.

Introduction: Adipose tissue is not only an energy storage place, but it also secretes numerous "adipocytokines" - substances that have systemic influence. Adiponectin has an anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic properties and increases insulin sensitivity. It is emphasized that adiponectin levels are different in type 1 and type 2 diabetes., The Aim of the Study: was to evaluate adiponectin levels in young patients with diabetes type 1, and to analyse of the correlation between adiponectin and: BMI, lipid parameters, glomerular filtration rate and microalbuminuria., Material and Methods: The study group was formed by 95 patients from the Outpatient Diabetology Department 2nd Department of Children's Diseases, 45 girls and 50 boys, aged from 7 to 20 years (mean - 14.97 yrs) suffering from diabetes from 1 to 17 years (mean 6.68 yrs). Control group consisted of healthy children, age matched, without family history of cardiovascular diseases. In all patients anthropometric measurements were performed (BMI was calculated), metabolic control was evaluated on the basis of HbA1c level, microalbuminuria was studied in 24 hour urine sample. We assessed glomerular filtration rate (endogenous creatinine clearance), lipid parameters and adiponectin level., Results: In children and adolescents with diabetes type 1 we found significantly higher levels of adiponectin compared to control group: 32.72+/-13.49 vs. 26.53+/-7.63 ug/ml; p=0.024. Adiponectin level was higher in girls than in boys (33.56 vs. 28.75 ug/ml; p=0.036). Adiponectin level did not depend on metabolic control and on diabetes duration. We found a statistically significant negative correlation between adiponectin and creatinine (r=-0.26; p=0.011). In patients with diabetic complications we found insignificantly lower adiponectin level compared to patients without complications (30.99+/-14.29 vs. 33.67+/-11.68 ug/ml; p=0.35)., Conclusions: 1. In patients with diabetes type 1 significantly higher level of adiponectin was found compared to healthy control group. 2. Adiponectin level correlated negatively with creatinine level end microalbuminuria. 3. Elevated level of adiponectin in patients without diabetic complications may help to explain the pathogenesis of diabetic angiopathy.

Purpose: To evaluate corneal thickness in diabetic and nondiabetic patients., Materials and Methods: The central corneal thickness (CCT) was investigated in 100 eyes of 100 patients with diabetes type I and in 99 nondiabetic patients (99 eyes). The mean diabetic patients age was 15.31 +/- 3.18 years. The mean age in control group was 14.3 +/- 2.2 years. Corneal thickness was measured by non-contact microscope Topcon SP-2000P Statistical analysis was performed to assess systemic factors (patient age, sex, duration of diabetes mellitus, hemoglobin A1c value, diabetes control) related to CCT. SAS STAT (Release 8.2) program, the independent t-test, Kolmogorow-Smirnow test and Bartlett test were used to compare differences between the diabetic and control group., Results: In our study the mean CCT in diabetic eyes was 0.54 +/- 0.03 mm and was significantly increased, compared to control group (0.525 +/- 0.037 mm). None of systemic factors was correlated with CCT., Conclusions: Our findings indicate that diabetes mellitus affects thickness of cornea in adolescents. Evaluation of endothelium in specular microscope should be performed in the diabetic patients.

Introduction: Microcirculation is known to be disturbed in many organs of diabetic patients. Retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy might be considered as the cause of the functional and morphological changes at the level of microcirculation. The aim of the study was to assess by means of dynamic capillaroscopy the influence of autonomic diabetic nephropathy (CAN) in adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus on capillary blood flow (CBV) in skin microcirculation., Material and Methods: The study group consisted of 18 patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (mean age 15+/-2 years). In 9 of them the diagnosis of CAN was made on the basis of Ewing tests. The control group consisted of 10 healthy persons aged 15+/-1.5 years. CBV was measured in capillars of the nailfold of the fourth finger during rest and after 2 minutes of arterial occlusion (the occlusion pressure - above 20 mmHg systolic blood pressure - was obtained by the occlusion of brachial artery using sphygnomanometer cuff)., Results: The resting CBV did not differ between patients with CAN, without CAN and healthy controls (0.39+/-0.06, 0.41+0.05 i 0.42+/-0.07). The values of the peak CBV significantly differ between the examined groups (CAN: 0.75+0.1; without CAN: 0.86+/-0.11; control group: 0.98+/-0.09, p<0.01)., Conclusions: The obtained results indicate that the presence of the autonomic diabetic neuropathy significantly influences the regulatory function of microcirculation, which may predispose to occurrence of different late diabetic complications.

Introduction: HsCRP protein is known as a novel marker of low grade inflammatory state, which characterises an atherosclerotic process in its early stages. Contrary to a large amount of data on inflammatory markers in diabetes type 2 and metabolic syndrome in adults, little is known so far about the inflammatory process in diabetes type 1, especially in children. The aim of the study was to estimate the level of hsCRP protein in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1 depending on coexisting additional risk factors for atherosclerosis and microvascular complications., Material and Methods: 127 children and adolescents with diabetes duration 6.7+/-3.3 years, aged 14.9+/-3.1, were studied. The control group consisted of 52 healthy children aged 14.9+/-2.8 years, matched acc. to gender. HsCRP level was assessed with use of immunoturbidymetric, latex augmented method (Tina-quant CRP (Latex) HS, Roche)., Results: HsCRP in the whole study group was nearly significantly higher compared to control group: 0.17+/-0.2 vs. 0.078+/-0.1 mg/dl, p=0.072. In diabetic hypertensive children (n=38) we found significantly higher levels of hsCRP compared to controls (0.27+/-0.3 vs. 0.07 mg/dl, p=0.008) and compared to diabetic normotensive children (0.13+/-0.22 mg/dl; p=0.024). Diabetic obese patients (n=23) had significantly higer hsCRP compared to controls (0.24+/-0.3 vs. 0.07+/-0.1 mg/dl, p=0.04). In 14 studied diabetic children we found coexisting hypertension and obesity, and we found further increase in hsCRP level - 0.28+/-0.3 mg/dl. In diabetic children with microangiopathy hsCRP level was 0.22+/-0.2 mg/dl, and it was insignificantly higher compared to controls and to diabetic children without complications. Correlation analysis showed interrelations between hsCRP and systolic blood pressure (r=0.2; p=0.04) and HbA1c (r=0.25; p=0.015). In stepwise regression analysis hsCRP was related to systolic blood pressure, HbA1c and the triglycerides level (R=0.37; p=0.003)., Conclusions: In children and adolescents with diabetes type 1 we proved significantly higher levels of hsCRP in case of a coexistence of hypertension and/or obesity. Elevated hsCRP in children with diabetes type 1 and hypertension and/or obesity reflects low grade inflammatory state in the course of metabolic syndrome.

Introduction: Endothelial damage is an early step in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis which begins in early childhood after exposure to atherogenic risk factors such as arterial hypertension. Atherosclerosis is becoming a common disease even in children and adolescents. Its progression may lead to very severe cardiovascular complications. Thrombomodulin (TM), a specific marker of endothelial cell damage, is a transmembranous glycoprotein with vasoprotective and anti-coagulant properties. TM-thrombin complex becomes an activator of protein C which inactivates factor Va and VIIIa and thereby inhibits the blood coagulation cascade. TM may be cleaved to its soluble (sTM) form by proinflammatory mediators and then detected in the circulation., Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate if sTM plasma concentration--one of biochemical markers of endothelium injury--is higher in children and adolescents with arterial hypertension (AH)., Materials and Methods: We studied 32 children with hypertension (9 girls and 23 boys, age range 10.5-17.2 years), and 17 healthy controls, without family history of cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension was detected after 24 hrs ABPM (Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring). We measured plasma concentration of sTM, blood lipids profile, body mass index (BMI) and, as sTM is excreted by the kidney, we also measured plasma level of creatinine and its clearance., Results: Plasma concentration of sTM in the group with essential hypertension was significantly higher than that in the control group (4.01 +/-1.05 vs 3.42+/-0.4; p<0. 05). There were no significant associations between sTM and age or sex. Analyzing lipids profile (cholesterol, LDL-c, HDL-c, triglycerides) we did not find any differences in their levels between groups. We observed statistically significant correlation between sTM and systolic and diastolic blood pressure during the day and night. In addition BMI ratio was higher in AH group but there was no significant correlation between sTM and BMI., Conclusion: Statistically higher level of sTM in children with AH compared with healthy individuals makes us sure that endothelium cells, even in children who were shortly exposed to atherogenic risk factors such as essential hypertension, are noticeably damaged. These results constitute an additional signal that a lot of effort should be put into the endeavors to eliminate atherogenic risk factors in children in order to prevent cardiovascular events.

Introduction: Abnormal activation of the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in diabetes mellitus leads to extracellular matrix changes through the structural protein composition changes. The metalloproteinases inhibitors (TIMPs) are regulatory factors in this activity. Not all regulating mechanisms are completely known, especially in patients with type 1 diabetes., The Aim of Study: evaluation of MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1, TIMP-2 levels in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes., Material and Methods: 74 patients in the mean age 15 years (+/-3.0) suffering from type 1 diabetes for mean 6.6 years (+/-3.6) took part in the study. Patients were treated with flexible multiple daily insulin (n=54) and with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion - personal insulin pump (n=20). MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 blood serum levels were measured in all patients. 45 healthy persons matched for age, without atherosclerosis risk factors, with proper BMI and lipids levels were in the control group., Results: MMP-2 level as well as TIMP-2 and TIMP-2 levels were significantly higher in patients with type 1 diabetes in comparison to the control group (p respectively <0,01; <0,02; <0,001). We observed higher MMP-9 level in obese patients than in patients with BMI value below 90 pc for sex and age (p<0,02). We noted lower MMP-2 level in patients with chronic complications and/or arterial hypertension (n=24) in comparison to patients without that kind of complications (p<0,05). Positive correlation between TIMP-1 level and HbA1c level was noted. Age of patients as well as BMI negatively correlated with MMP-2 and TIMP-2 and positively with TIMP-1. We observed a correlation between MMP-2, TIMP-2 and especially TIMP-1 with lipid levels. Strong positive correlation was noted between MMP-2 and TIMP-2 (r=0.8; p<0,0001)., Conclusions: 1. MMP-2, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 levels are higher in patients with type 1 diabetes than in the control group. 2. Age, diabetes duration, metabolic control, BMI and lipids levels have influence on the MMPs/TIMPs system. 3. TIMP-1 is supposed to be the key marker of metabolic disturbances in type 1 diabetes.

Introduction: The late complications of diabetes consisted of autonomic neuropathy, nephropathy, which more often coexist with hypertension in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus. THE AIM OF THE STUDY was to assess the connections between changes in the autonomous nervous system, 24-hour ABPM and daily albumin excrection in children with hypertension and type 1 diabetes mellitus., Material: The group consisted of 72 patients with diabetes (diabetes duration time 6.5+/-1.5 years). 34 patients of that group have hypertension. The control group consisted of 30 healthy children matched according to age and sex., Results: In children with hypertension we found significantly often occurrence of microalbuminuria (13/34 i 1/38, p<0.001). In 17 patients from the group with hypertension and 17 patients without hypertension we affirm signs of autonomic neuropathy. The values of heart rate variability (HRV) were significantly decreased in the group with hypertension as compared to the control group. A stepwise multiple regression analysis with hypertension as a dependent variable and diabetes duration time, microalbuminuria, HbA1c level, HRV parameters and a presence of autonomous neuropathy as predictors proved that hypertension is associated with higher HbA1c level (b=0.35), the presence of autonomous neuropathy (b=0.28), and lower HF values (b=0.41) (p<0.01)., Conclusions: Hypertension in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus is correlated with the presence of autonomous neuropathy, higher HbA1c level and lowered values of heart rate variability parameters.

Introduction: Type 1 diabetes is a known risk factor for arterial atherosclerosis. The first symptoms can be found even in childhood. The ultrasonographic measurements of intimal plus medial thickness in carotid arteries (IMT) and flow mediated dilatation (FMD) evaluated in brachial arteries, play a known role in the detection in these cases. The diabetes treatment intensification is an important factor in delaying early atherosclerotic changes. Currently, intensive treatment of children's diabetes with use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion with personal insulin pumps is gaining more and more popularity. THE AIM OF THIS STUDY was the evaluation of IMT and FMD indexes in children suffering from type 1 diabetes in the context of treatment intensification (multidose insulin injections v. personal insulin pumps)., Material and Methods: We examined 64 children (29 boys and 35 girls) in the mean age 15.5 years treated with the multidose insulin injections method and 10 children using personal insulin pumps (4 girls and 6 boys) in the mean age 14.5 years. Using high resolution ultrasonography we evaluated IMT values in carotid arteries and FMD parameters in brachial arteries. In our analysis we estimated the blood concentration of lipid parameters, values of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, the age of diabetes onset, duration time of the illness and the values of HbA1c as a marker of metabolic control., Results: We noticed significantly higher FMD values in patients treated with personal insulin pumps (13.7 vs. 5.5%, p=0.001). IMT values were similar in both groups (0.52 vs. 0.5 mm, p=0. 41). The level of HDL cholesterol was higher and triglycerides lower in the group with treatment intensification. The metabolic control was the same in both groups. In patients treated by the multidose insulin injections IMT correlated with systolic blood pressure values. We didn't notice any correlation between IMT and FMD in any group., Conclusions: 1. Treatment intensification (personal insulin pumps) influences better vascular endothelial function in type 1 diabetic children and seems to be a significant tool in delaying the atherosclerotic process. 2. We need more examinations to explain the role of treatment intensification in common carotid arteries wall morphology in type 1 diabetic children. 3. The ultrasonographic detection of atherosclerotic changes in arterial vessels can help in the evaluation of the changes due to different methods of diabetes treatment.

Introduction: Uncontrolled arterial hypertension brings direct and long-term sequelae in adult age, such as stroke, ischaemic heart disease with myocardial infarction, left ventricular hypertrophy or cardiac arrhythmia., Aim: To assess heart rate variability (HRV) spectral parameters and left ventricular mass in slim children with arterial hypertension, and to search for correlations between these two parameters., Methods: 35 children aged 14.4+/-3.1 with idiopathic untreated arterial hypertension were enrolled. The control group included 30 age- and gender-matched healthy children (aged 14.1+/-2.9 years). In all analysed subjects an analysis of HRV parameters (high frequency (HF) and low frequency (LF) components) during 10-minute waking state and sleeping time was performed and left ventricular mass (LVM) as well as the left ventricular mass index (LVMI, g/m) were assessed based on echocardiographic measurements., Results: There was no difference in LF during the waking state and sleep HF between the two groups, whereas HF values during the waking state were significantly lower (p<0.05) in children with hypertension. The LF/HF index from both registration intervals was significantly higher in the group of children with hypertension. In children with hypertension, LVM and LVMI correlated significantly with LF (r=0.32, p<0.05 and r=0.39, p<0.01). LVM and LVMI correlated positively with the LF/HF index during night hours (r=0.45, p<0.004 and r=0.49, p<0.002). No significant correlations were found between the analysed parameters in children from the control group., Conclusions: The increase of sympathetic activity during sleep correlates significantly with left ventricular mass and corrected left ventricular mass index in children with arterial hypertension.

The authors present the case of 16-year old girl with diabetes mellitus type 1. She had progression of diabetic retinopathy because of occurrence of Graves' disease. Surgical intervention (strumectomy subtotal, bilateral), was performed and regression of retinal changes was observed.

Unlabelled: Endothelial damage is one of the earliest stages in the atherosclerosis process. Adhesion molecules, secreted from dysfunctional endothelial cells are considered as early markers of atherosclerotic disease. Ultrasonographic evaluation of brachial arteries serves to detect biophysical changes in endothelial function, and evaluation of carotid arteries intima-media thickness allows to evaluate the earliest structural changes in the vessels. The aim of the study was to the evaluate levels of selected adhesion molecules (sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, sE-selectin, sP-selectin) and endothelial function with use of brachial artery dilatation study (flow mediated dilation--FMD, nitroglycerine mediated dilation--NTGMD) and IMT in carotid arteries in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1, as well as the correlation analysis between biochemical and biophysical markers of endothelial dysfunction., Material and Methods: We studied 76 children and adolescents, with mean age--15.6+/-2.5 years, suffering from diabetes mean 7.8+/-2.8 years, mean HbA1c--8.4+/-1.5%. Control group consisted of 33 healthy children age and gender matched. Adhesion molecules levels were estimated with the use of immunoenzymatic methods (R&D Systems). Endothelial function was evaluated by study of brachial arteries dilation--FMD, NTGMD, with ultrasonographic evaluation (Hewlett Packard Sonos 4500) after Celermajer method, and IMT after Pignoli method., Results: In the study group we found elevated levels of sICAM-1: 309.54+/-64 vs. 277.85+/-52 ng/ml in the control group (p<00.05) and elevated level of sE-selectin: 87.81+/-35 vs. 66.21+/-22 ng/ml (p<00.05). We found significantly impaired FMD in brachial arteries in the study group--7.51+/-4.52 vs. 12.61+/-4.65% (p<00.05) and significantly higher IMT value: 0.51+/-0.07 vs. 0.42+/-0.05 mm (p<00.001). Correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between sE-selectin and FMD - r=-0.33 (p=0.004), and a positive correlation between E-selectin and IMT: r=0.32 (p=0.005)., Conclusions: 1. In children and adolescents with diabetes type 1 we found elevated levels of adhesion molecules sICAM-1 and sE-selectin, what can confirm an endothelial dysfunction in these patients. 2. Significant negative correlation between sE-selectin level and FMD, and positive correlation between sE-selectin and IMT were found. 3. Biophysical proof of this damage is impaired brachial artery dilatation--FMD, and increased IMT values provide information about structural changes in the vessels.

Background: Improved methods of diabetes therapy result in a near normoglycaemic state in many patients. This leads however unfortunately to more frequent hypoglycaemic incidents. Particularly small children, whose nervous system is not fully mature, are at high risk of central nervous system damage in case of hypoglycaemia. A new method of detail monitoring of glycaemia provides CGMS system., Objectives: The aim of the study was to compare the glycaemic profile, with high attention to hypoglycaemia in groups of young and older children with diabetes type 1, using CGMS and routine glucose meter., Material and Methods: We studied 32 children with diabetes type 1. Children were divided into groups: group I--small children, n=17 (<7 yrs of age), mean age 5,8 years, with disease duration--2,46 years, with mean HbA1c level--7,22%, and group II--older children, n=15 (>10 years of age), mean age--12 years, with disease duration--3 years, with HbA1c level--7,21%. Continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS), by MiniMed, was applied in outpatient or hospital conditions, after short training of patient and parents; together with routine glucose meter measurements, 4-8 times/24 hours. In 9 patients from small children group CGMS was repeated after 2 months., Results: Hypoglycaemic incidents detected with CGMS were similar in both groups: 4,6 in I group vs. 4,2 in II group (ns). Hypoglycaemic incidents found with meter were lower in I group--1,6 vs. 2,3 in II group (ns). Mean hypoglycaemic time/24 hour was longer in small children group: 101 min vs. 74 min in group II (p<00,05). In I group we found higher number of hypoglycaemic incidents during the night compared to group II--1,7 vs. 0,8 (p<00,05) and longer duration of night hypoglycaemia: in I group--56 min vs. 32 min in group II (p<00,05). Repeated CGMS study in 9 children from I group revealed decreased mean time of hypoglycaemia/24 hours from 134 min/24 h to 90 min/24 h (p<00,05) and decreased time of night hypoglycaemia from 65 min to 40 min (p<00,05), with a comparable number of hypoglycaemic incidents. Hypoglycaemic incidents found with routine meter measurements in small children were 1,6 vs. 4,6 hypoglycaemia found with CGMS (p<00,05), in the older children group routine measurement found 2,3 hypoglycaemia vs. 4,2 detected with CGMS (ns)., Conclusions: 1. CGMS can be particularly usefull in monitoring glucose profile and detecting hypoglycaemia incidents, mainly nocturnal in small children. 2. CGMS allows to verify meal dose of insulin and to decrease postprandial hyperglycaemia. 3. Modification of insulin therapy on the base of CGMS helps to decrease the time of hypoglycaemia and hyperglycemia, particularly during the night.

Background: Endothelial damage is an early step in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis which begins in early childhood after exposure to atherogenic risk factors such as obesity. Its progression may lead to very severe cardiovascular complications. TM -- a specific marker of endothelial cell damage, is a transmembranous glycoprotein with anti-coagulant properties. It has a large, extracellular region comprising a thrombin binding site. TM-thrombin complex becomes an activator of protein C which inactivates factor Va and VIIIa and thereby inhibits the blood coagulation cascade., Objectives: The aim of the present study was to investigate if plasma concentration of sTM (one of markers of endothelial cells injury) is higher in children and adolescents with obesity., Materials and Methods: We studied 22 obese children, 11 girls and 11 boys, (age range 8.5-17.8 years), and 17 normal weight healthy controls, (age range 12-17.9 years) without family history of cardiovascular diseases. We measured plasma concentration of sTM, blood lipids profile, body weight and BMI. As sTM is excreted by the kidney we also measured plasma level of creatinine and its clearance., Results: Plasma concentration of sTM in the group with obesity was significantly higher than that in the control group. There were no significant association between sTM and age or sex. Compared with non-obese patients, obese children had higher plasma concentration of total cholesterol, LDL-c, triglycerides, but these were not significant differences. However there was a significantly lower level of HDL-c in children with obesity. In addition statistically significant correlation between sTM and BMI was observed in the obese group., Conclusions: Statistically higher level of sTM in children with obesity compared with healthy individuals makes us sure that endothelium cells, even in children who were shortly exposed to atherogenic risk factors such as obesity, are noticeably damaged. These results constitute an additional signal that a lot of effort should be put into the endeavors to eliminate atherogenes risk factors in children population in order to prevent cardiovascular events.

Background: The most important complication in the course of diabetes mellitus type I is diabetic nephropathy. Nowadays, apart from assessing the increased amount of albumins in urine, we are not able to identify early enough these patients whose health might be endangered by nephropathy. Looking for other biochemical indicators which could mark the early symptoms of kidney damage/renal malfunction seems to be justified., Objectives: 1. What is the concentration of cystatin C among children and teenagers suffering from diabetes mellitus type 1 and whether its level depends on the age of patient, the age in which the patient was affected with the disease, the length of the disease, metabolic compensation, diabetes control and the presence of microangiopathy? 2. Is there any interdependence between cystatin C and microalbuminuria and the renal efficiency rates?, Material: Study group. A group of 130 patients (60 girls and 70 boys aged from 7 and 20,8) who have been suffering from juvenile diabetes from 1 to 17 years was examined. The control group were healthy youngsters, matched for age and sex, without any /burdening/ medical history., Methods: All the patients were examined in the following way: anthropometric measurements were taken, BMI in kg/m2 was defined, metabolic compensation based on HbA1c (%) was estimated. Ophthalmological examination and a circadian monitoring of arterial blood pressure were carried out. Microalbuminuria in a 24-hour urine collection was determined. In both groups glomerular filtration rate with the help of endogenous creatinine clearance and the concentration of cystatin C were evaluated. The results were subject to statistical analysis., Results: The average age of the whole examined group was 15+/-3,0 the average disease length 6,85+/-3,36 years. The concentration of cystatin C among diabetic patients was higher in comparison with the control group (0.75+/-0.13 vs. 0.68+/-0.12 mg/l). It was also discovered that the concentration of cystatin C was increasing along with the length of the disease reaching the highest level in the group of patients suffering from this disease longer than 10 years (0.52+/-0.11 vs. 0.67+/-0.13 vs. 0.93+/-0.13 mg/l), which is again statistically significant. Moreover the concentration of cystatin C is higher among patients with insufficient diabetes control (0.765+/-0.12 mg/l vs. 0.71+/-0.12 pg/ml, p<0.05). These patients who additionally developed vascular complications (retinopathy, nephropathy, arterial hypertension) had significantly higher condensation of cystatin C (0.75+/-0.13 vs. 0.69+/-0.11 mg/l, p<0.05)., Discussion: Having considered the initial results, the following conclusion can be reached: only further, long-term research can supply us with the reliable data whether assessing the level of cystatin C concentration in children's and teenagers' serum in diabetic patients could become the earlier marker of renal malfunction than microalbuminuria.

Background: Autoreactive T lymphocytes participate in the development of type 1 diabetes mellitus. The migration of T cells is initiated by increased expression of L-selectin on the cellular membrane of lymphocyte. Recently, a correlation between the concentration of sL-selectin and the develop-ment of diabetic retinopathy, atherosclerosis and arterial hypertension was stated., Objectives: The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the expression of L-selectin on lymphocytes T alters in the course of the disease -- diabetes lasting less than 5 years and over 5 years; to assess a relationship between the percentage of L-selectin on T cells and the evolution of vascular complications; to elucidate whether the percentage of peripheral blood T lymphocytes expressing L-selectin could be an early marker of angiopathy in juvenile patients., Material and Methods: The study was carried out on 60 children and adolescents (aged 9-20) with diagnosed type 1 diabetes: a) (20 n) with the disease lasting <5 years, b) (20 n) with type 1 diabetes lasting >5 years without vascular complications, c) (20 n) with type 1 diabetes and vascular complications (microalbuminuria, arterial hypertension, diabetic retinopathy). The control group consisted of 20 healthy volunteers (aged 6-17). The expression of adhesion molecules has been evaluated by using three-color flow cytometry (Coulter EPICS XL). HbA1c concentration has been analysed by a liquid chromatography technique HPLC-Variant (Bio-Rad)., Results: The percentage of T lymphocytes expressing L-selectin was significantly increased in all groups of patients with type 1 diabetes versus healthy controls (p<0.005 and p<0.001, in groups without complications and with angiopathy, respectively). Moreover in patients with diagnosed arterial hypertension the percentage of T lymphocytes expressing L-selectin was higher than in patients in whom arterial hypertension was not developed (p<0.05)., Conclusions: In juvenile patients with type 1 diabetes the percentage of T lymphocytes expressing L-selectin was increased independently on the du-ration of the disease. In children with type 1 diabetes and diagnosed vascular complications the highest percentage of T lymphocytes expressing L-selectin was found.

Background: Endothelial injury is the main stimulus for endothelin-1 (ET-1) secretion - a strong vasoconstricting agent. The role of endothelial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of hypertension and atherosclerosis which already develops in childhood, has been recently underlined., Aim: To asses plasma ET-1 concentration in children and adolescents with such atherogenic risk factors as hypertension, obesity or diabetes., Methods: The study group consisted of 105 children and adolescents in the mean age of 15.3+/-2.4 years who were divided into 5 groups: (1) hypertension, (2) obesity and hypertension, (3) obesity, (4) diabetes and (5) diabetes with hypertension. The control group was composed of 32 healthy subjects of appropriate weight, aged 14.7+/-2.9 years. Plasma concentration of ET-1 was measured using the enzymatic method ELISA (R and D Systems)., Results: ET-1 plasma concentration was significantly higher in the whole study group than in controls (0.71 vs 0.40 pg/mL; p<0.05) as well as in each studied subgroup compared with healthy subjects (0.63 pg/mL, p<0.05; 0.88 pg/mL p<0.05; 0.96 pg/mL, p<0.05, 0.60 pg/mL, p<0.05, and 0.63, p<0.05, respectively). There was a significant correlation between ET-1 concentration and body mass index in the whole study group (p=0.001) as well as cholesterol (p=0.018) and triglyceride (p=0.001) levels. In the group of patients with hypertension, ET-1 correlated with body mass index (p=0.023) and systolic blood pressure (p=0.02)., Conclusions: Children and adolescents with hypertension, obesity or diabetes have higher ET-1 plasma concentration than healthy subjects. ET-1 level correlates with body mass index, lipid parameters and systolic blood pressure.

Unlabelled: Diabetes type 1 is the chronic disease, leading to many acute and late complications. Pathogenesis of the late complications is not fully understood. Lately, growth factors, and especially vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) are gaining great interest as potential risk factors of late diabetic complications, mainly nephropathy and retinopathy The aim of the study was evaluation of the level of VEGF in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1, and searching for correlation between level of this cytokine and microangiopathy and metabolic control., Material and Methods: 68 young diabetic type patients were studied, aged 8-20 yrs (x = 15.54 yrs), suffering from diabetes type 1 from 2.3-16.5 yrs (x = 7.84 yrs), 34 boys, 34 girls. They were all under control of Outpatient Diabetic Department. Control group were healthy children, age and gender matched. Metabolic control was assessed on the basis of HbA1c level. All children underwent ophthalmology examination, microalbuminuria was evaluated in 24 hours urine samples. VEGF was estimated with use of immunoenzymatic method (RD Systems)., Results: In the study group we found: significantly higher levels of VEGF compared to control group (328.68 +/- 251.6 vs 132.19 +/- 85.51 pg/ml: p<0.05). We did not find any differences between genders in VEGF level. VEGF increases with diabetes duration time, and the highest values are in children with diabetes duration over 10 years, although the differences did not reach statistical significance. VEGF level was significantly higher in children with poor metabolic control of the disease (406.65 +/- 322.11 pg/ml vs 132.19 +/- 85.51 pg/ml; p<0.05). Patients with retinopathy had the highest level of VEGF, compared to children without complications., Conclusions: Assessment of VEGF level can be useful method in prognosis of diabetes microangiopathic complications. As microalbuminuria occurs relatively late in diabetic complications process, evaluation of VEGF may become a prognostic marker of the earliest phases of this complication.

Unlabelled: Selectins are the group of adhesion molecules, which main role is the tethering of leukocytes to the endothelium. They induce relatively weak and transient adhesion allowing the cells to roll along the vascular wall. That mean, that selectins play part in the earliest stages of the atherosclerotic process. The aim of the study was to evaluate levels of E-selectin, L-selectin and P-selectin in children and adolescents with traditional atherosclerosis risk factors (obesity, hypertension and diabetes), correlation with lipid parameters, blood pressure values and BMI as well as the attempt to answer the question whether selectins, and which of them can be useful in predicting cardiovascular risk in these young patients., Material and Methods: We studied 66 children aged 14.8+/-2.6 years. They were divided into 4 subgroups according to the diagnosis: children with obesity--OP (n=12), children with obesity with hypertension--OP and NT (n=14), children with hypertension--NT (n=12), children with diabetes--C (n=28). Control group consisted of 15 healthy, slim children and adolescents, aged 15.4+/-2.2 yrs. Levels of E-selectin, P-selectin and L-selectin were evaluated by immunoenzymatic methods with use of R&D Systems ELISA kits., Results: In the study group we found significantly higher level of E-selectin--86+/-28 ng/mL compared to control group: 64+/-20 ng/mL (p<0.05). Similarly in all subgroups levels of E-selectin were significantly higher: in obese children E-selectin level was 95+/-31 ng/mL (p<0.05), in obese and hypertensive group--88+/-12 ng/mL (p<0.05), in hypertensive group--79+/-19 (p<0.05), and in diabetic children--83+/-25 ng/mL (p<0.05). L-selectin level in the study group was 1552+/-290 ng/mL and did not differ from control group--1652+/-281 ng/mL (ns). P-selectin level in the study group was 652+/-419 ng/mL and was similar to the level of P-selectin in the control group--669+/-295 ng/mL (ns). Correlation analysis showed significant relationship between E-selectin and BMI (r=0.23, p<0.05) and diastolic blood pressure (r=0.24, p<0.05)., Conclusions: 1. Young patients with atherosclerosis risk factors have elevated level of E-selectin. 2. E-selectin level correlates with BMI and diastolic blood pressure. 3. Elevated level of E-selectin may confirm endothelial dysfunction in young patients with atherosclerosis risk factors and can serve as a marker of early atherosclerosis phases.

Objective: The purpose of the study was the evaluation of growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP-3) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in adolescents with type 1 diabetes as well as the relationship between the concentration of examined proteins and the early development of diabetic microangiopathy., Research Design and Methods: The study included 68 patients aged 15.54+/-2.9 years with type 1 diabetes. They were divided into groups: I - adolescents with the beginning of vascular complications, II - without complications. Controls consisted of healthy adolescents. GH, IGF-1, IGFBP-3 and VEGF were determined with use of ready kits., Results: The increased levels of GH were found in diabetic adolescents in comparison with controls (10.11+/-16.21 vs. 2.89+/-4.03 micro IU/ml, p<0.05). The levels of IGF 1 were lower in adolescents with type 1 diabetes than in controls (283.48+/-117.36 vs. 427.95+/-177.48 ng/ml, p<0.05), as well as the levels of IGFBP-3 (5555.21+/-1158 vs. 6622.18+/-1110 pg/ml, p<0.05). Significantly higher concentration of VEGF was revealed in diabetic adolescents in comparison with controls (328.68+/-251 vs. 132.19+/-85 pg/ml, p<0.05). The highest levels of VEGF were reported in diabetic patients with retinopathy in comparison with patients without complications., Conclusions: The impaired activity of GH-IGF-1-IGFBP-3 axis may be responsible for the development of diabetic microangiopathy. The evaluation of VEGF concentration can be a sensitive early marker of microangiopathy.

Unlabelled: The critical study showing advantages of intensive insulin therapy in comparison with the classic method was Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Conclusion of that study was unequivocal: hyperglycemia has a significant influence on the development of the chronic diabetes complications. THE AIM of this study was to estimate the influence of the conventional insulin therapy in the past and its duration on the development of complications in patients suffering from type 1 diabetes for more than 5 years., Material and Methods: 185 patients aged 16.7 years (+/-3.4) with diabetes onset in the age 8.4 years (+/-3.8) participated in this study. There were 84 girls and 101 boys. More of them were treated by classic insulin therapy at the beginning of disease (n=148). 37 persons had intensive insulin therapy all the time., Results: The presence of at least one complication was found in 49 persons (26.5%), two complications - in 14 patients (7.57%) and three complications in 4 patients (2.16%). The conventional therapy duration was twice longer in patients with retinopathy. The significant influence of the age, the age of diabetes onset and duration was found in those patients. Comparing the groups of patients treated conventionally less than 3.5 years and more than 3.5 years it was found that patients in the first group were older, fell ill later and they had longer diabetes duration than patients in the second group. The risk of retinopathy increases from 4.2% to 8.9% in patients treated conventionally more than 3.5 years. The risk of diabetic cataract is 5 times higher in that group., Conclusions: Chronic complications of diabetes occur in 26.5 % patients with a diabetes duration of at least 5 years. CIT is the risk factor of the eye complications in diabetes, particularly when applied longer than 3.5 years. The prolongation of CIT over 3.5 years increases the risk of retinopathy twice and the risk of cataract 5 times in patients with type 1 diabetes. So the early intensification of insulin therapy reduces the risk of the retinopathy and cataract development in later course of the disease.

Unlabelled: The inability of the patient to recognize the risk of hypoglycemia is a very frequent phenomenon, but it is also often an underestimated complication in diabetes treated with insulin. The results of DCCT trial revealed that intensification in insulin therapy increases three-fold the risk of severe hypoglycaemia. Feeling the state of hypoglycaemia is the basic defensive mechanism in patients with diabetes type 1, making possible to start the self treatment. The decreased consciousness of hypoglycaemia makes limitations to intensive insulin therapy, which main aim is to stop later complications. THE AIM OF THE STUDY was to answer the questions: 1. How often does lack of consciousness of hypoglycaemia occur in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1. 2. What are the possible factors influencing appearance of hypoglycaemia. 3. Is lack of hypoglycaemia consciousness of a risk factor for severe hypoglycaemia., Material and Methods: The study was carried out on 318 patients aged x=13.6 yrs (4-21), suffering from diabetes, mean 6.6 yrs (2-18). The study was retrospective taking into consideration the period from 1.01.1998 to 31.12.2002., Results: In the analysis of the questionnaire assessing the occurrence of hypoglycaemia it was found that 82 patients (25.8%) have problems with feeling the state of hypoglycaemia. We analyzed the influence of time of lasting diabetes and we found that patients with a longer duration of the disease more frequently have problems with feeling hypoglycaemia, 57% patients with lack of hypoglycaemia consciousness have bad metabolic control of the disease. In the analyzed period, 64 incidences of severe hypoglycaemia in 48 patients (30 boys and 18 girls) were found. In patients with lack of consciousness of feeling hypoglycaemia the incidences of severe hypoglycaemia occurred ten times more frequently compared to patients who feel hypoglycaemia. Sleeping makes it impossible to perceive early symptoms of hypoglycaemia: in our patients 51 severe incidences (79.7%) occurred at 1.00-3.00 a.m., 6 (9.3%) occurred at daybreak and 7 (11%) in the evening., Conclusions: 1. In patients with diabetes type 1 the lack of hypoglycaemia consciousness occurs in about 25%. 2. The lack of hypoglycaemia consciousness is closely connected with time of diabetes duration and with recurrence of hypoglycaemia incidences. 3. Patients with lack of hypoglycaemia consciousness are at greater risk for severe hypoglycemia.

Unlabelled: Growth hormone, insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins are now gaining a great interest in the development of microvascular complications in diabetic children and adolescents. THE AIM OF THE STUDY WAS: 1. Evaluation of growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP-3) levels in youths with diabetes type 1. 2. Evaluation of correlations between this proteins and the development of microvascular complications and metabolic control., Material and Methods: The study was carried out on 39 young diabetic persons aged (8-20 yrs), mean-14.8, suffering from diabetes mean 7.45 yrs (2.3-15), 20 boys and 19 girls, diabetic outpatient clinic patients. The study group was divided into 2 groups: I, n = 11, with the begin of microangiopathy and group II, n = 28, without any symptoms of vascular complications. Control group consisted of 16 healthy adolescents. GH, IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 levels were estimated by use of radioimmunoenzymatic methods., Results: In adolescents with diabetes we found higher GH levels, and lower IGF-1 as well as IGFBP-3 levels in comparison to control group. Statistically higher were IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 levels in children with diabetes duration longer than 10 years. Metabolic control did not influence GH, IGF-1 or IGFBP-3 levels., Conclusions: 1. Children and adolescents with diabetes type 1 have elevated level of growth hormone, with lower level of IGF-1 and IGFBP-3. 2. Oversecretion of growth hormone did not depend on metabolic control. 3. Adolescents with diabetic microangiopathy have significantly elevated levels of growth hormone and low levels of IGFBP-3. 4. Disturbances in axis GH-IGF-1--IGFBP-3 seems to be responsible for early development of diabetic microangiopathy. This knowledge may give new opportunities for therapy diabetic children and adolescents with early phases of microangiopathy with recombinated IGF-1.

Unlabelled: Atherosclerotic process is accelerated in children with atherosclerosis risk factors, such as type 1 diabetes. Infiltration of the vessel wall by monocytes and lymphocytes, which starts atherosclerotic process, takes place under influence of adhesion molecules. Adhesion molecules play an important role in the first stage of atherosclerosis, and it is suggested that expression of adhesion molecules in children can be greater than in adults. The aim of the study was to evaluate the concentration of soluble forms of adhesion molecules slCAM-1 and sVCAM-1 in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. The concentration of adhesion molecules was additionally assessed depending on metabolic compensation, complications, diabetes duration and family history of cardiovascular disease., Material and Methods: The study was carried out in 28 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes, aged 10.5-18 years (mean 15.3), with diabetes duration 5-15 years (8.1); mean HbA1c level during last six months was 6-11.4% (8.2%). Control group included 16 healthy, slim children aged 11-18 years (15.5). slCAM-1 and sVCAM-1 levels were assessed by means of immunoenzymatic methods (Parameter Human soluble lCAM-1 Immunoassay, Parameter Human soluble VCAM-1 Immunoassay, R&D Systems)., Results: slCAM-1 concentration in diabetic children was 305 +/- 71 ng/dl and was significantly higher than in controls--262.1 +/- 59 ng/dl (p = 0.04). sVCAM-1 concentration in diabetic children was 499.5 +/- 162 ng/dl and did not differ from the controls--446.3 +/- 95 (ns). In 5 children with positive family history of cardiovascular disease we found significantly higher slCAM-1 level: 323 +/- 72 ng/dl vs 244 +/- 30 ng/dl in children with negative family history (p < 0.05). The level of slCAM was slightly higher in ill children with worse metabolic compensation (314 +/- 90 ng/dl in group with HbA1c > 8%, 322 +/- 84 ng/dl in group with HbA1c < 8% but > 7%, and 285 +/- 68 ng/dl in group with HbA1c < 7%). We found a significant correlation between HbA1c and slCAM-1 (r = 0.39, p = 0.014) as well as between BMI and sVCAM-1 (r = 0.39, p = 0.044)., Conclusions: 1. Elevated level of slCAM-1 in young diabetic patients correlates with metabolic compensation and positive family history of cardiovascular diseases. 2. sVCAM-1 level in diabetic children correlates significantly positively with body mass index (BMI). 3. Evaluation of adhesion molecules levels can be useful tool in the observation of the dynamic development of early phases of atherosclerotic process in young patients with type 1 diabetes.

The authors present the role of VEGF in microaneurysm formation, blood-retinal barrier breakdown, development of capillary nonperfusion and retinal neovascularization in pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Inhibitors of VEGF in treatment of diabetic retinopathy are presented.

Unlabelled: Maintaining good metabolic control is connected with an increasing risk of hypoglycaemia, which is the most frequent and most dangerous side effect of intensive insulin therapy. The results of the DCCT trial revealed that the intensification in insulin therapy increases three-fold the risk of severe hypoglycaemia. Severe hypoglycaemia was defined by loose of consciousness, coma and/or convulsions. Feeling the state of hypoglycaemia is the basic defensive mechanism in patients with diabetes type 1, making possible to start the self treatment. The decreased consciousness of hypoglycaemia makes limitations to the intensive insulin- therapy, the main aim of which is to stop later complications. The aim of the study was to evaluate the incidence of severe hypoglycaemia during a 5 yrs period, the attempt to find the reason and correlations between severe hypoglycaemia and decreased consciousness of feeling this state in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1., Material and Methods: The study was carried out on 280 patients aged x=13.1 yrs (2.2-18.6), suffering from diabetes, mean duration 7 yrs (2.0-13.9). The study was retrospective, taking into consideration the period from 1.01.1995 to 31.12.2000., Results: During the analysed period we noticed 48 cases of severe hypoglycaemia in 31 patients (21 boys and 10 girls), mean age 13.8 yrs, with diabetes duration about 7 yrs. Every tenth patient had severe hypoglycaemia. Mean level of HbA1c was little lower in children with episode of severe hypoglycaemia (7.2%) than in patients without it (7.9%). The frequency of episodes of severe hypoglycaemia increased with the duration of the disease. The dose of insulin per day did not differ between groups. In patients with severe hypoglicaemias only 5 were treated with use of Humalog. In 38 (81%), severe hypoglycaemias occurred between 1-3 o'clock a.m., 4 (1.9%) in the early morning and 6 (2.88%) in late evening hours. Only in 9 cases the reason for severe hypoglycaemia was found. 11 patients had at least twice incidents of severe hypoglycaemia and 7 of them (63%) did not feel the signs of the decreasing glycaemia level., Conclusions: The lack of consciousness of hypoglycaemia is connected with the increased frequency of severe hypoglycaemia in children and adolescents with diabetes type 1.

Background: Ischemic heart disease is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality among diabetics, especially those who became ill at a young age. In evaluating the risk of the development of atherosclerotic changes, especially when occurring prematurely, increasing attention is being paid to new, unconventional risk factors. One of many such new factors, and one whose role in the development of atherosclerotic changes currently seems to be beyond dispute, is homocysteine. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the concentration of homocysteine in children and youth with Type 1 diabetes, and to attempt to determine the dependence between homocysteine and the degree of metabolic control, the duration of the illness, the age at onset, the insulin dose, the appearance of complications, and a family history of ischemic heart disease., Material and Methods: Our research involved 103 children and youth (average age 13.3 years) with Type 1 diabetes, with an average duration of illness of 5.3 years. The control group consisted of 44 healthy, non-obese children. The concentration of homocysteine was measured using the AXIS homocystein EIA immunoenzymatic method with a set of reagents from the Bio Rad company., Results: The average homocysteine concentration in the experimental group was 5.6 micromol/L, which did not constitute a significant difference from the control group's 6.1 micromol/l. No statistically significant differences were discovered in the concentration of homocysteine depending on the degree of metabolic control, age at onset, method of insulinotherapy, or family history. A significant increase in the concentration of homocysteine was found in children who had been ill for a long time (more than 10 years): 6.1 micromol/L, as against 5.1 micromol/l in children who had been ill for a shorter period of time, and a significantly higher concentration of Hcy in children with diabetic complications (6.1 vs 5.3 micromol/L) and in children with arterial hypertension., Conclusions: The significant increase in the concentration of homocysteine in children with Type 1 diabetes and arterial hypertension indicates that this group is particularly exposed to early atherosclerotic changes, independently of metabolic control and the parameters of lipid metabolism, and requires the implementation of treatment aimed at reducing the blood concentration of homocysteine.

Unlabelled: The aim of the study was to evaluate the glycaemic response to pre- and postprandial Humalog., Material: The study involved 47 type 1 diabetic adolescents between the ages 12 and 18 (mean 15.5) and the duration of diabetes from 1 to 13 years (mean 5.16)., Methods: All patients received Humalog in intensive therapy during 3-month period: 29 persons just before the meal and 18 immediately after the meal. All patients were injected with basal insulin twice a day (Humulin N). HbA1c values were determined at the beginning and the end of study. Patients' blood glucose levels were measured preprandially and 1 and 2 hours after eating their first bite of breakfast (noted in 1, 6 and 12 week of observation). At the end of observation (after 3 months) the analysis of the blood glucose levels after pre- and postprandial administration of Humalog insulin was performed. Blood samples were obtained at -40, -20, 0, 15, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180 minute relative to the start of the meal., Results: The mean HbA1c value decreased from 8.01 to 7.63%. The patients' preprandial glucose levels 1 and 2 hours after meal were similar in two groups in each measurement (1, 6, 12 week). The pre- and postprandial glucodynamics were similar in the two groups. The number of mild hypoglycaemic episodes was slightly higher in the group receiving Humalog before meal (0.32 vs. 0.19 episodes/person/day - p<0.05)., Conclusion: Postprandial Humalog insulin may provide good postprandial glucodynamic control because it is safe, insulin dose can be matched to the actual food intake and it is not associated with an increase in the frequency of hypoglycaemic events. The possibility of the pre- and postprandial Humalog insulin administration improves the quality of life of patients with diabetes.