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Variant anatomy in the axillary region is of great clinical significance. It is one of the most frequently accessed regions for radical dissection surgery. During routine dissection of embalmed cadavers, we found a rare case of two accessory muscular slips emerging from the lateral border of latissimus dorsi (LD) and the inferolateral border of pectoralis major (PM), crossing the neurovascular structures in the axilla and merging distally together to the brachial fascia at the upper end of humerus below the bicipital groove. The accessory slip from LD is commonly referred to as the "axillary arch" in literature. We identified the accessory slip from the PM crossing over the axilla as pectoralis quartus. These aberrant slips can cause neurovascular compression in the axilla and can have clinical implications. Prior knowledge of the variant anatomy is the key to successful surgery in the axilla, thereby avoiding inadvertent injuries and post-operative complications., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag France SAS, part of Springer Nature.)

The purpose of the study was to compare young (6-wk-old) and spent (52-wk-old) Japanese quail in terms of body weight, carcass characteristics, and some meat quality traits. Whole carcasses were dissected, pectoral muscles and leg muscles were sampled for determination of basic chemical composition and L*a*b* color parameters, while m. pectoralis major was sampled for texture and microstructure traits. Age of quails had a significant effect on body weight, carcass weight, carcass yield, pectoral muscle, abdominal fat and skin with subcutaneous fat, and carcass remainders contents in eviscerated carcass. Spent quails had significantly higher intramuscular fat content in pectoral and leg muscles and protein content in breast muscle, and also lower content of water in breast and leg muscles than young quails. Slaughter age significantly affected lightness (L*) and redness (a*) of pectoral muscles, as well as texture traits (except for cohesiveness) and microstructure of m. pectoralis major, except for thickness of perimysium and endomysium. Regardless of age, quail sex had an effect on the carcass traits studied (except for leg muscle content), intramuscular fat content of pectoral and leg muscles, water content of leg muscles and yellowness of pectoral muscle. In addition, a significant effect of quail sex was found on cutting work, springiness, chewiness and marked microstructural characteristics, except for vertical fiber diameter. The interaction between age and sex was significant for most slaughter and microstructural characteristics and also WB-shear force of m. pectoralis major, and L*, b* pectoral muscles. Higher fatness of carcasses, higher intramuscular fat in meat, and poorer textural and microstructural characteristics of m. pectoralis major spent Japanese quail indicate poorer fulfillment of most consumers' requirements compared to carcasses and meat of young quails., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The pectoralis minor muscle is located in the anterior thoracic wall. Typically, is constituted by a single belly originating from the 3rd to the 5th rib and inserted into the coracoid process near the origins of the biceps brachii shorth head and of the coracobrachialis muscle. The current study, on human fetuses, aims to detect all morphological muscle variants and to create a new classification system., Material and Methods: Classical dissection of the thoracic wall and the upper limb was bilaterally performed on 25 (13 male and 12 female) human formalin-fixed fetuses aged 18-38 weeks of gestation. The spontaneously aborted fetuses were donated after parental consent to the Medical University anatomy program. The pectoralis minor muscle's morphology, the number of the muscle's bellies, their origins, and insertions, as well as the morphometric details of each belly of the pectoralis minor, were assessed., Results: The pectoralis minor was bilaterally found in all fetuses (50 cases). Three types of muscle were identified based on the number of muscle bellies. In type, I (typical anatomy), were classified the cases with a single belly (in 66%). This type was divided into two subtypes (Ia and Ib). In the subtype Ia, the single belly had a typical course, and in Ib, a proximal attachment was characterized by two small bellies connecting together and creating one muscular mass. In type II, two bellies (24%), and in type III, three bellies (10%) were identified., Conclusions: Pectoralis minor is morphologically variable in the number of its bellies, its course, its origins, its insertions, and the location of its proximal attachments. The most common type (typical anatomy) was the type I represented by one belly. Other identified variants in the number of bellies by the present study may be hypothetically a result of prematurely terminated embryogenesis., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: The pectoralis major muscle is located in the anterior chest wall. In most cases, it is divided into clavicular, sternal (sternocostal) and abdominal heads. The aim of this study is to demonstrate and classify the morphological variability of the pectoralis major muscles in human fetuses., Material and Methods: Classical anatomical dissection was performed on 35 human fetuses aged 18-38 weeks of gestation at death were examined. (17 female, and 18 male, 70 sides; fixed in 10% formalin solution). The fetuses were obtained from spontaneous abortion after informed consent of both parents and through deliberate donation to the Medical University anatomy program. Upon dissection, the following morphological features were assessed: the morphology of the pectoralis major, the possible occurrence of accessory heads, the possible absence of some head, and morphometric measurements of each head of the pectoralis major muscle., Results: Five types of morphology (based on number of bellies) were observed in the fetuses. Type I was characterized by a single claviculosternal belly (10% of all samples). Type II comprised the clavicular and sternal heads (37.1%). Type III comprised three clavicular, sternal and abdominal heads (31.4%). Type IV (17.2%) was characterized by four muscle bellies and was divided into four subtypes. Type V (4.3%), was represented by five parts, and was divided into two subtypes., Conclusions: Due to its embryological development, the PM demonstrates great variability in the numbers of its parts. The most common type was the PM with two bellies, in line with previous studies which also distinguished only clavicular and sternal heads., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

Acute shoulder tendon and intra-articular injuries are common and their imaging well described. However, a subset of patients present with more unusual acute shoulder muscle injury. Of these, pectoralis major muscle injuries are encountered the most often and are increasingly prevalent due to a focus on personal fitness, particularly bench-press exercises. Other muscle injuries around the shoulder are rare. This article reviews the anatomy, mechanism of injury, and the imaging findings in relation to injuries of these muscles around the shoulder. We focus on pectoralis major injury but also review proximal triceps, latissimus dorsi, teres major, and deltoid muscle injuries, providing imaging examples., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Background: Proximal humeral fracture is the third most common of osteoporotic fracture. Most surgical cases were treated by fixation with anatomical locking plate system. The calcar screw plays a role in medial support and improving varus stability. Proximal humerus fracture in elderly patients are commonly seen with greater tuberosity (GT) fracture. The GT fragment is sometimes difficult to use as an anatomic landmark for proper plate and screw position. Therefore, the insertion of pectoralis major tendon (PMT) may be used as an alternative landmark for appropriate plate and calcar screw position. The purpose of study is going to identify the vertical distance from PMT to a definite point on the position of locking plate., Methods: 30 cadaveric shoulders at the department of clinical anatomy were performed. Shoulders with osteoarthritic change (n = 5) were excluded. Finally, 25 soft cadaveric shoulders were recruited in this study. The PHILOS™ plate was placed 2 mm posterior to the bicipital groove. A humeral head (HH) was cut in the coronal plane at the level of the anterior border of the PHILOS plate with a saw. A calcar screw was inserted close to the inferior cortex of HH. Distance from the upper border of elongated combi-hole (UB-ECH) to the upper border of pectoralis major tendon (UB-PMT) was measured. The plate was then moved superiorly until the calcar screw was 12 mm superior to the inferior border of HH and the distance was repeatedly measured., Results: The range of distance from UB-PMT to the UB-ECH was from - 4.50 ± 7.95 mm to 6.62 ± 7.53 mm, when calcar screw was close to inferior border of HH and when the calcar screw was 12 mm superior to the inferior border of HH, respectively. The highest probability of calcar screw in proper location was 72% when UB-ECH was 3 mm above UB-PMT., Discussion and Conclusion: The GT fragment is sometimes difficult to use as an anatomic landmark for proper plate and screw position. PMT can be used as an alternative anatomic reference. UB-PMT can serve as a guide for proper calcar screw insertion. UB-ECH should be 3 mm above UB-PMT and three-fourths of cases achieved proper calcar screw location., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Breast muscle weight (BrW) is one of the most important economic traits in chicken, and directional breeding for that results in both phenotypic and genetic changes. The Jingxing yellow chicken, including an original (without human-driven selection) line and a selected line (based on selection for increased intramuscular fat content), were used to dissect the genetic architecture and key variants associated with BrW. We detected 1069 high-impact single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with high conserved score and significant frequency difference between two lines. Based on the annotation result, the ECM-receptor interaction and fatty acid biosynthesis were enriched, and muscle-related genes, including MYOD1 , were detected. By performing genome-wide association study for the BrW trait, we defined a major haplotype and two conserved SNPs that affected BrW. By integrated genomic and transcriptomic analysis, IGF2BP1 was identified as the crucial gene associated with BrW. In conclusion, these results offer a new insight into chicken directional selection and provide target genetic markers by which to improve chicken BrW.

Optimal throwing speed and accuracy is built on a complex interaction of multiple variables. Although strength and power has been associated with throwing speed in cricketers, the individual muscles that contribute to optimal function of the shoulder-complex has not been adequately explored in connection with throwing performance. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the correlation between musculoskeletal variables and overhead throwing performance in cricketers. Thirty-two amateur male cricketers were tested using a battery of 16 tests (strength, flexibility, scapula positioning) as well as a throwing speed (TS) and a novel accuracy test (TA). Only two of the sixteen tests were correlated with throwing performance in the multiple regression analysis. Non-dominant hip abduction strength correlated positively with TS ( p  < 0.05): on average, a strength increase of 10 newtons (N) was associated with an increase in TS of 0.60 km/h (95% CI: 0.12-1.08). Non-dominant pectoralis minor length correlated positively with TA ( p  < 0.01): on average, a one-centimetre increase in the length correlated to an increase, of 0.633 points (95% CI: 0.225-1.041). This cross-sectional study demonstrated that from an array of musculoskeletal variables, only non-dominant hip abduction strength correlated with TS, while only non-dominant pectoralis minor length correlated with TA in amateur cricketers.

The purpose of this analysis is to determine whether pectoralis muscle measures quantified on pre left ventricular assist device (LVAD) computerized tomography (CT) scans can identify subgroups of patients with differential disease severity within each Interagency Registry for Mechanical Circulatory Support (INTERMACS) profile. Patients with chest CTs performed ≤3 months before LVAD implantation at University of Minnesota (n = 143) and Houston Methodist Hospital (n = 133) were identified from the larger LVAD cohorts (University of Minnesota n = 353, Houston Methodist =278). Unilateral Pectoralis muscle mass indexed to body surface area and pectoralis muscle attenuation were measured on preoperative chest CT scans. Patients within each INTERMACS profile were separated into HIGH and LOW PEC muscle groups. Kaplan-Meier and multivariable cox regression analyses were performed to compare mortality among INTERMACS profiles by HIGH and LOW PEC muscle groups. INTERMACS 3 and 4 patients in the HIGH PEC groups had the highest survival on LVAD support (1 year survival 85% vs. 68%, log rank P = 0.0001). Being in this group was associated with a 60% reduction in the hazards rate (HR) of death after LVAD (adjusted HR 0.40, 95% confidence interval 0.25-0.62). Additionally, renal function deterioration in the year before LVAD was associated with lower INTERMACS profiles and lower measured pectoralis muscle tissue attenuation at the time of LVAD implantation. INTERMACS 3 and 4 patients with the highest pectoralis muscle measures had the best survival after LVAD. The association between renal function deterioration and sarcopenia suggests these muscle changes are progressive. Computerized tomography quantification of sarcopenia may help identify optimal LVAD implantation timing., Competing Interests: Disclosure: R.C. is a consultant, speaker’s bureau in Abbott Lab; a consultant, speaker’s bureau, husband’s employment, Heart Failure Advisory Board in Medtronic. R.J. Is a consultant, research grants in Abbott Lab and Medtronic. J.D.E. is a consultant in Abbott Lab; Heart Failure Advisory Board in Medtronic. B.T. is a consultant in Abbott Lab. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to report., (Copyright © ASAIO 2021.)

Shoulder pathology is a very common medical presentation and can be due to anatomical variations. Therefore, knowledge of variants is important for the clinician treating patients with such complaints so that misdiagnosis is minimized and iatrogenic injury prevented. A review of the literature was performed of the variant anatomy of the pectoralis minor muscle. The aim of this review is to better inform clinicians who might treat patients with shoulder pathology so that if identified, variants of the pectoralis minor muscle are better appreciated.

The study compared the effects of resistance training programs composed by multi-joint (MJ), single-joint (SJ) and the combination of multi- and single-joint (MJ+SJ) exercises on muscle strength and hypertrophy in trained women. Thirty participants were divided into groups that performed only MJ exercises, SJ exercises and MJ+SJ exercises for six months. Participants were tested for 1-repetition maximum (RM) and muscle thickness (MT) before and after the intervention. All groups showed significant gains on 1RM tests from pre- to post-training (P<0.01). However, MJ and MJ+SJ groups obtained greater gains in 1RM for the MJ exercises in comparison with the SJ group. Increases in 1RM for the SJ exercises were similar among groups, with the exception of leg curl, where the SJ group obtained greater gains than MJ and MJ+SJ. All groups obtained significant increases in MT from pre- to post-training for all muscle groups. However, MJ and MJ+SJ groups presented greater increases in gluteus maximus, quadriceps femoris and pectoralis major in comparison with the SJ group. Therefore, our results suggest that, in general, performing MJ exercises seems to be necessary to obtain optimal results from a resistance training program; however SJ might be necessary to provide optimal strength gains in knee flexion., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Goose meat is increasingly popular among consumers because of its good quality. The fiber characteristics have been well demonstrated to be key contributing factors of meat quality, and the marketable ages are also closely related to meat quality. However, little is known about the effect of different marketable ages on the quality of goose meat through its fiber characteristics. Here, fiber characteristics of Yangzhou geese of different marketable ages (70, 90, and 120 d) and their effect on meat quality were investigated. The results showed that only fast-twitch fibers were present in breast muscle, irrespective of age, and that few slow-twitch fibers could be identified in leg muscle, especially in gastrocnemius and extensor digitorum longus. Fiber diameter in breast muscle increased rapidly from age 70 d to 90 d, from 19.88 to 26.27 μm, and remained stable for 90 d thereafter. The diameter and cross-sectional area of muscle fiber continue to grow with day increasing in leg muscle. In addition, we measured the proximate composition and physical properties at different ages. Among the 3 marketable ages investigated, the 120-day-old geese had higher intramuscular fat and protein content, as well as lower moisture content, both in breast and leg meat. Greater lightness and pressing loss, with lower redness and shear force, were observed in the breast and leg meat of 70-day-old geese when compared with 90- or 120-day-old geese. Taken together, although older marketable age hardly affected muscle fiber type in geese, it would contribute to larger muscle fiber area, higher intramuscular fat and protein content, as well as redder and chewier meat. As a result, the reasonable marketable age should be taken into account to improve quality in goose meat production, and the marketable age of 90 or 120 d was recommended and it could potentially improve meat quality in goose meat production., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Purpose: To assess the proximity of neurovascular structures in a layered approach during medial portal placement and determine standardized measurements for establishing a portal medial to the coracoid used in arthroscopic Latarjet-type procedures., Methods: Twelve shoulders (6 right and 6 left) in 6 fresh frozen cadaveric torsos were mounted in the modified beach-chair position. A standard posterior portal and 3 anterior portals-central, lateral, and medial-were used. A long spinal needle was placed along the path of the medial portal to the lateral tip of the coracoid, superficial to the conjoined tendon and pectoralis minor. A second long spinal needle was directed toward the medial base of the coracoid, penetrating the pectoralis minor. Superficial and deep plane dissections were performed, and distances to surrounding neurovascular structures were recorded., Results: In the superficial plane, the cephalic vein and lateral pectoral nerve were located a mean distance (± standard deviation) of 4.6 ± 1.9 mm and 9.4 ± 2.6 mm from the spinal needle, respectively. In the deep plane, the axillary nerve was 24.9 ± 7.4 mm from the needle; the lateral cord of the brachial plexus, 25.5 ± 8.1 mm; the axillary artery, 34.1 ± 6.0 mm; and the musculocutaneous nerve, 42.2 ± 9.2 mm. The portal was consistently established 45.0 to 50.0 mm distal and 30.0 to 35.0 mm medial to the coracoid, which was a minimum distance of 10 mm to the lateral pectoral nerve., Conclusions: In a cadaveric model, the creation of a medial trans-pectoralis major portal used in the arthroscopic Bankart-Bristow-Latarjet procedure can avoid compromise of vital neurovascular structures, alleviating concerns of creating a portal medial to the coracoid. Portal placement 45.0 to 50.0 mm distal and 30.0 to 35.0 mm medial to the palpable tip of the coracoid process may be a safe approach to perform the arthroscopic Bankart-Bristow-Latarjet procedure., Clinical Relevance: Creation of a portal medial to the level of the coracoid may pose a risk to neurovascular structures. This cadaveric study establishes a working zone for medial trans-pectoralis portal placement, which avoids vital neurovascular structures, and provides standardized measurements for establishing this portal for use in the arthroscopic Bankart-Bristow-Latarjet procedure., (Copyright © 2020 Arthroscopy Association of North America. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Cartilage repair usually involves in non-vascularized osteochondral or chondral grafts with some drawbacks potentially linked to the lack of vascular supply in those grafts. The aim of this study was to describe a surgical approach for harvesting a vascularized chondrocostal graft, to study the vascular supply to the perichondrium and finally to describe the perichondrium micro-vascularization in order to know how such grafts could be used in cartilage repair surgery., Materials and Methods: We harvested and studied 18 costal cartilages harvested from 12 fresh anatomical subjects. The anatomic pieces were injected with a radio-opaque tracer, analyzed macroscopically, then a plain X-rays and CT scan analysis with three-dimensional rendering was performed in order to evaluate the characteristics of the different patterns of their vascularization., Results: The surgical approach to harvest a vascularized 5th chondrocostal graft is explained in detail. All of the cartilages were vascularized by the internal thoracic artery and harvested with a pedicle of an average length of 34mm and diameter of 2.14mm. In all specimens, perichondrium vascularization arises from both superior and inferior intercostal branches. Anastomoses between inferior and superior intercostal branches are always found in all specimens at the level of the epichondrium., Conclusions: The anatomic approach for harvesting a vascularized chondrocostal graft is simple and only slightly differs from the approach described for harvesting a non-vascularized chondrocostal graft. The vascular supply to the perichondrium of such a vascularized chondrocostal graft is sustained by the internal thoracic vessels which have a sufficient diameter and length to allow easy micro-anastomosis. The organization of the micro-vasculature within the perichondrium allows the graft to be tailored to a large cartilage defects and also to small bipolar cartilage defects., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Background: This study evaluates the pectoralis major (PM) tendon humeral insertion, using imaging and histologic assessment in cadaveric specimens. Current descriptions of the pectoralis major tendon depict a bilaminar enthesis, and clarification of the anatomy is important for diagnostic and surgical considerations., Materials and Methods: Fourteen fresh-frozen whole upper extremity specimens were used in this study. Magnetic resonance (MRI) and ultrasonographic (US) imaging of the PM muscles, tendons, and entheses were performed, followed by anatomic dissection and inspection. Morphology of the lateral tendon and entheses were evaluated, focused on the presence of layers. In 11 specimens, the lateral 3 cm of the PM tendon was carefully dissected from the footprint, whereas in 3 specimens, the tendon and humeral insertion were preserved and removed en bloc. Histology was performed in axial slabs along the medial-lateral length of the tendon and also evaluated for the presence of layers., Results: The superior-inferior and medial-lateral lengths of the PM footprint were 75 ± 9 mm and 7 ± 1 mm respectively. In all specimens, the clavicular and sternal head muscles and tendons were identified, with the clavicular head tendon generally being shorter. The medial-lateral length of the clavicular head tendon measured 19 ± 8 mm superiorly and 9 ± 3 mm inferiorly. The medial-lateral length of the sternal head tendon measured 38 ± 8 superiorly and 41 ± 18 mm inferiorly. All specimens demonstrated a unilaminar, not bilaminar, enthesis with abundant fibrocartilage on histology. Three specimens demonstrated interspersed entheseal fat and loose connective tissue at the enthesis on MRI and histology., Conclusion: The PM tendon humeral insertion consists of a unilaminar fibrocartilaginous enthesis. US, MRI, and histology failed to identify true tendon layers at the enthesis. Delaminating injuries reported in the literature may originate from a location other than the enthesis., (Copyright © 2020 Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery Board of Trustees. All rights reserved.)

Rationale: Typically, the tendon of the pectoralis major inserts into the crest of the greater tubercle of the humerus. However, anomalous insertion sites of the pectoralis major tendons have been noted., Patient Concerns: The cadaver of a 95-year-old Japanese man was selected from the bodies used for gross anatomy practice at the Tokai University School of Medicine in 2018., Diagnosis: In this cadaver, the left side of the pectoralis major tendon appeared to insert at the crest of the greater tubercle and lesser tubercle of the humerus, forming a tunnel measuring 2.5 cm in total length., Intervention: We removed the fat and skin around the shoulder joint and upper extremity for observational purposes and carefully examined the structures during gross anatomy., Outcomes: The medial side of the insertion of the pectoralis major tendon was not into the humerus but had combined with the tendon of the latissimus dorsi, which then loosely inserted into the humerus. As the roof and both walls comprised the tendon of the pectoralis major and the floor was formed by the tendon of the latissimus dorsi and humerus, the structure formed a tunnel., Lessons: This study is important for orthopedic and rehabilitation physicians in treating diseases of the long head of the biceps brachii tendon. As part of management, the condition of the tendon of the pectoralis major should be confirmed using magnetic resonance imaging or echocardiography.

Phenotypic flexibility in avian metabolic rates and body composition have been well-studied in high-latitude species, which typically increase basal metabolic rate (BMR) and summit metabolism (M sum ) when acclimatized to winter conditions. Patterns of seasonal metabolic acclimatization are more variable in lower-latitude birds that experience milder winters, with fewer studies investigating adjustments in avian organ and muscle masses in the context of metabolic flexibility in these regions. We quantified seasonal variation (summer vs winter) in the masses of organs and muscles frequently associated with changes in BMR (gizzard, intestines and liver) and M sum (heart and pectoral muscles), in white-browed sparrow-weavers (Plocepasser mahali). We also measured pectoral muscle thickness using a portable ultrasound system to determine whether we could non-lethally estimate muscle size. A concurrent study measured seasonal changes in BMR and M sum in the same population of sparrow-weavers, but different individuals. There was no seasonal variation in the dry masses of the gizzard, intestines or liver of sparrow-weavers, and during the same period, BMR did not vary seasonally. We found significantly higher heart (~ 18% higher) and pectoral muscle (~ 9% higher) dry mass during winter, although ultrasound measurements did not detect seasonal changes in pectoral muscle size. Despite winter increases in pectoral muscle mass, M sum was ~ 26% lower in winter compared to summer. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report an increase in avian pectoral muscle mass but a concomitant decrease in thermogenic capacity.

Heat stress is a broiler welfare issue and economic deficit to the broiler industry. Water atomizing with three-dimensional forced ventilation, a holding treatment after summer transport for broiler, has been proved to significantly improve water holding capacity of fresh meat. However, effectiveness of this treatment on water retention after freeze-thaw needs to be conducted. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess whether water atomizing with forced ventilation could increase freeze-thaw meat quality after birds slaughtering. Arbor Acres broiler (n = 105), undergoing 32°C ambient temperature transport, was randomly categorized into 3 treatments: 1) T group, which underwent 45-min transport without rest; 2) TR group, which underwent 45-min transport with 1-h rest; and the 3) TWFR group, which underwent 45-min transport followed by 15-min water atomizing with three-dimensional forced ventilation and 45-min rest. All birds were hot-deboned within 30-min postmortem. A total of 105 breast fillets were collected and split into halves, which left part fillets were kept in 4°C and for meat analysis, the other part fillets, marked with T-F, TR-F, and TWFR-F, were frozen (-18°C) for 1 mo and then thawed overnight for meat quality analysis. Regardless of fresh or frozen treatment among 3 groups, TWFR has the highest pH which was more than 6.01 (P < 0.05). The L* value, drip loss, and cooking loss of TWFR were significantly lower compared to T and TR groups in both fresh and frozen breast fillets (P < 0.05). Compared with the T group, the TWFR meat shows closely microscopic structure which means less water loss channel. The impedance amplitude of the fresh meat was significantly higher than that of the frozen-thawing meat (P < 0.05). TWFR-treated meat has significantly higher impedance module than T and TR meat at 50 Hz frequency region, for both fresh or thawed meat. Among 6 treatments, TWFR fresh meat has significantly highest Q (modulus change ratio) value (P < 0.05). These results indicate that TWFR treatment for 15 min after transport can improve meat quality, which may be due to the improved welfare of broilers transported in hot summer months., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Context: The pectoralis minor (PM) is an important postural muscle that may benefit from myofascial techniques, such as Graston Technique® (GT) and self-myofascial release (SMR)., Objective: To examine the effects of GT and SMR on PM length, glenohumeral total arc of motion (TAM), and skin temperature., Design: Cohort., Setting: Laboratory., Participants: Twenty-six healthy participants (19 females and 7 males; age = 20.9 [2.24] y, height = 170.52 [8.66] cm, and weight = 72.45 [12.32] kg) with PM length restriction participated., Interventions: Participants were randomized to the intervention groups (GT = 12 and SMR = 14). GT and SMR interventions were both applied for a total of 5 minutes during each of the 3 treatment sessions., Main Outcome Measures: PM length, TAM, and skin temperature were collected before and after each intervention session (Pre1, Post1, Pre2, Post2, Pre3, and Post3) and at 1-week follow-up (follow-up). Separate intervention by time analyses of variance examined differences for each outcomes measure. Bonferroni post hoc analyses were completed when indicated. Significance was set a priori at P ≤ .05., Results: No significant intervention by time interactions were identified for PM length, TAM, or temperature (P > .05). No significant intervention main effects were identified for PM length (P > .05), TAM (P > .05), or temperature (P > .05) between the GT or SMR technique groups. Overall, time main effects were found for PM length (P = .02) and temperature (P < .001). Post hoc analysis showed a significant increase in PM length for both intervention groups at follow-up (P = .03) compared with Post2. Furthermore, there were significant increases in temperature at Post1 (P < .001), Post2 (P = .01), and Post3 (P < .001) compared with Pre1; Post2 was increased compared with Pre2 (P = .003), Pre3 (P < .001), and follow-up (P = .01); Post3 increased compared with Pre3 (P = .01) and follow-up (P = .01)., Conclusion: Serial application of GT and SMR to the PM did not result in increases in PM length or TAM. Regardless of intervention, skin temperature increased following each intervention.

Background: Fatty acid composition contributes greatly to the quality and nutritional value of meat. However, the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying fatty acid accumulation in poultry have not yet been cleared. The aims of this study were to characterize the dynamics of fatty acid accumulation in duck breast muscle and investigate its correlations with gene expression., Results: Here, we analyzed the fatty acid profile and transcriptome of breast muscle derived from Pekin ducks and mallards at the ages of 2 weeks, 4 weeks, 6 weeks and 8 weeks. Twenty fatty acids were detected in duck breast muscle, with palmitic acid (C16:0, 16.6%~ 21.1%), stearic acid (C18:0, 9.8%~ 17.7%), oleic acid (C18:1n-9, 15.7%~ 33.8%), linoleic acid (C18:2n-6, 10.8%~ 18.9%) and arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6, 11.7%~ 28.9%) as the major fatty acids. Our results showed that fatty acid composition was similar between the two breeds before 6 weeks, but the compositions diverged greatly after this point, mainly due to the stronger capacity for C16:0 and C18:1n-9 deposition in Pekin ducks. By comparing the multistage transcriptomes of Pekin ducks and mallards, we identified 2025 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Cluster analysis of these DEGs revealed that the genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation, fatty acid degradation and the PPAR signaling pathway were upregulated in mallard at 8 weeks. Moreover, correlation analysis of the DEGs and fatty acid composition traits suggested that the DEGs involved in lipogenesis, lipolysis and fatty acid β-oxidation may interact to influence the deposition of fatty acids in duck breast muscle., Conclusions: We reported the temporal progression of fatty acid accumulation and the dynamics of the transcriptome in breast muscle of Pekin ducks and mallards. Our results provide insights into the transcriptome regulation of fatty acid accumulation in duck breast muscle, and will facilitate improvements of fatty acid composition in duck breeding.

Background: The purpose of this article is to develop a new method for elevating the pedicled terminal pectoral perforator flaps (PTPPFs) and to resolve the difficulties and controversies that shroud the anatomy of terminal pectoral perforators from the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial axis., Aim: Anatomical study was conducted to assess the feasibility of perforator flaps based on the terminal perforators of the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial vessel axis. The knowledge that gleaned from this anatomical study was applied in the clinical scenario. A clinical retrospective study was conducted to evaluate the outcome of PTPPFs for the reconstruction of postexcisional head and neck defects., Materials and Methods: Thirty cadaveric specimens were examined for the anatomy of the terminal musculocutaneous pectoral branch perforators. Thirty-two cases (22 males, 10 females) of various head and neck postexcision defects were reconstructed with the PTPPFs in a single-stage manner. Pectoralis major muscle with its innervation was spared in all cases. All the secondary defects were closed primarily., Results: The maximum cutaneous paddle size was 156 cm harvested on a single best terminal pectoral branch perforator. The average size of the cutaneous paddle harvested was 73.47 cm. The flap complications noted (9.3%) were trivial, and all the flaps survived well. The average institutional computed score for esthetic and functional recovery at the donor and reconstructed site done by 2 independent observers were 4.56 and 3.78, respectively., Conclusions: The recruitment of the chest skin on the terminal pectoral branch perforators resulted in a long pedicle flap with adequate qualities like color match, texture match, and pliability. This flap shall serve as a primary option for pedicle and free flap head and neck reconstructions.

The axilla is a region of clinical and surgical importance with plenty of anatomical variations. One of these is the presence of accessory muscles. The literature was reviewed in order to identify the different supernumerary muscles that are described in the axilla. Variant muscle slips arising from the pectoral muscle or latissimus dorsi muscle have been described. There still remains controversy regarding the phylogenetic origin of these different muscles. We described the most frequently reported muscles, their origin, and course. Further research is required regarding the innervation and influence on glenohumeral and scapulothoracic kinematics.

Purpose: To outline the technical details and determine the ranges of two pedicled functioning flaps that are the upper pectoralis major (UPM) and latissimus dorsi (LD) to elucidate their respective indications with regards to deltoid impairment., Methods: The UPM and LD bipolar transfers were performed in 14 paired cadaveric shoulders, one on each side. The UPM was flipped 180° laterally over its pedicle to be placed onto the anterior deltoid. The LD flap was elevated on its pedicle to be rotated and positioned onto the deltoid mid-axis. Their respective spans were defined according to the deltoid muscle origin and insertion., Results: The UPM outreached the lateral edge of the anterior deltoid origin with a mean distance of 7.3 cm (range 4-9.1 cm) off the lateral edge of the clavicle. Distally, the flap consistently overcame the proximal end of the deltoid tuberosity for a mean distance of 2.1 cm (range 0.9-3.2 cm). The LD flap mdi-axis could be consistently placed onto the deltoid mid-axis; spans of the anterior and posterior borders of the LD flap averaged 1 cm (range - 1 to 2.3 cm) and 0.2 cm (range -1.8 to 1.9 cm), respectively., Conclusions: The UPM flap optimal indications would be cases with deltoid defects limited to its anterior portion, whereas the LD bipolar transfer could be used in more extensive lesions. Additionally, the distal span of both transfers appears to allow their use in the setting of a reverse shoulder arthroplasty with subsequent humeral lengthening., Level of Evidence: Non-applicable-basic science study, cadaver dissection.

Large and deep defects resulting from lateral skull base surgery represent a challenge to the head and neck surgeon. Different microvascular free flaps have specific advantages and disadvantages. While the pedicled pectoralis major flap is considered a "work horse," it comes with a rather short pedicle. The aim of this study was to analyze the vascular anatomy of the pectoralis major flap and assess its suitability for microvascular transfer. Anatomical studies have been performed on 6 Thiel-fixed cadavers allowing a harvest of 12 flaps by the same surgeon. Measurements of the pedicle's length and vessel diameters have been taken with a ruler and caliper. The mean pedicle length and mean diameters (Ø) of the thoracoacromial artery and concomitant vein were found to be 9.8 cm, Ø 4.2 mm, and Ø 4.9 mm, respectively. These results suggest the potential utility of a free pectoralis major flap with microvascular anastomosis.

Since the original description in 2011, the array of pectoral nerve blocks has evolved. The pectoral nerve (PECS) block in conjunction with general anesthesia can decrease an additional analgesic in perioperative period for breast cancer surgeries. Current literature on the PECS block has reported 3 several types (PECS I, PECS II, and serratus plane blocks). The PECS I block is the same as to the fi rst injection in the PECS II block. The second injection in the PECS II block and the serratus plane block blocks intercostal nerves (Th2–6) and provides an analgesic for the breast cancer surgery. However, the PECS I block (or fi rst injection in the PECS II block) has no analgesic, because both lateral and medial pectralis nerve blocks are motor nerves. PECS block in previous reports, when added to opioid-based general anesthesia, may improve analgesia and decrease narcotic use for breast cancer surgery. Moreover, PECS block compares favorably with other regional techniques for selected types of surgery. A major limitation of the PECS block is that it cannot block the internal mammary region. Therefore, some studies have reported its ability to block the anterior branches of the intercostal nerve. PECS block is an effective analgesic tool for the anterolateral chest. In particular, the PECS block can provide more effective analgesia for breast cancer surgery., Competing Interests: None.

The sonographic appearance of soft tissue can be altered with movement. This can be related to both position change as well as torsional stress. The objective of this article is to demonstrate sonographic anatomy of the anterior shoulder as it moves into full external rotation., Methods: Ultrasound images were obtained in a healthy human subject. Conventional imaging locations were selected that are typically utilized to assess musculoskeletal and peripheral nerve anatomy as well as perform therapeutic injections. The transducer was centered over each region to obtain both short- and long-axis views. A pair of sonographic images was recorded for both imaging planes at each site: the first in anatomic neutral and second in full external rotation. In addition, a video recording was made at each site to track the movement of the muscles and nerves during external rotation., Results: The rotator interval including the intertubercular groove and biceps brachii long head moves far laterally when viewed in short axis, and it becomes out of plane when viewed in long axis. The subscapularis is relatively poorly visualized with the shoulder in neutral position, but the tendon and more distal aspect of the muscle are well visualized in full external rotation. The pectoralis major tendon insertion is well visualized in long axis with the shoulder in both neutral position and full external rotation. Movement of the humerus and the pectoralis major insertion are seen with shoulder rotation. The muscle appears to tighten and lengthen. The pectoralis major muscle is also seen in greater detail in external rotation. The cord level of the brachial plexus is also visualized at the infraclavicular portion of the anterior shoulder. The medial, posterior, and lateral cords are visualized in relation to the axillary artery. The relative position of the cords is only minimally altered with external rotation; however, the overlying pectoralis minor is tightened, and its influence can be visualized., Discussion: External rotation has a considerable effect on the sonographic appearance of the anterior shoulder. Targets used for therapeutic injections, such as the bicipital groove, rotate out of clear view. Some chemodenervation targets, such as the muscle of the subscapularis, can only be accessed with the shoulder in full external rotation. Full external rotation of the shoulder also places torsional stress on some of the anterior shoulder structures, such as the pectorals, which can provide diagnostic clues in certain pathologic conditions., Conclusion: Movement into external rotation changes the sonographic appearance of the anatomic relationships of the anterior shoulder. Knowledge of these torsional changes can have both diagnostic and therapeutic implications.

Background: The presented study attempts to classify individual anatomical variants of the pectoralis major muscle (PM), including rare and unusual findings. Rare cases of muscular anomalies involving the PM or its tendon have been presented. An attempt has also been made to determine whether anatomical variations of the PM may affect the innervation pattern of the lateral and medial pectoral nerves., Material and Methods: The research was carried out on 40 cadavers of both sexes (22 males, 18 females), owing to which 80 PM specimens were examined., Results: Typical PM structure was observed in 63.75% of specimens. The most frequently observed variation was a separate clavicular portion of the PM. In one female cadaver (2.5% of specimens) the hypotrophy of the clavicular portion of the PM was noticed. In two male cadavers (5% of specimens) the fusion between the clavicular portion of the PM and the deltoid muscle was observed. In one of those cadavers, small sub-branches of the lateral pectoral nerve bilaterally joined the clavicular portion of the deltoid muscle. The detailed intramuscular distribution of certain nerve sub-branches was visualized by Sihler's stain. PM is mainly innervated by the lateral pectoral nerve. In all specimens stained by Sihler's technique, the contribution of the intercostal nerves in PM innervation was confirmed., Conclusions: Surgeons should be aware of anatomic variations of the PM both in planning and in conducting surgeries of the pectoral region.

Purpose: The pectoralis minor muscle (PMi) generally originates from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs and inserts on the medial and superior margins of the anterior portion of the coracoid process. Variations in the shape and attachment point of the PMi could cause discomfort in the shoulders. The aim of this study was to observe the types of morphological insertion patterns and attachment sites of the PMi., Methods: Seventy-four sides of fresh, embalmed Korean (42 sides; mean age 78 years) and Thai (32 sides; mean age 78 years) cadavers were dissected to analyze the morphological insertion types and attachment sites of the PMi., Results: Unusual insertion patterns were evident in about 23% of the samples. When the portion of the PMi tendon ran over the coracoid process, the most common attachment site was the glenohumeral joint capsule. We also confirmed the attachment of the PMi to the clavicle. Costal attachments of the PMi that extend from the second rib to the fourth rib were observed frequently as well., Conclusions: Unusual insertion patterns of the PMi are common. Some authors consider that tendon attachment to the joint capsule can cause shoulder pain. In addition, the PMi tendon could be utilized in acromioclavicular joint reconstruction. Surgeons need to be aware of the possibility of a PMi variant being found during surgery even when this is not visible in magnetic resonance or ultrasound imaging.

The sternalis muscle is an infrequent, non-pathological anatomical variant typically misrepresented in a clinical context. It presents with 3-8% prevalence, according to cadaveric studies. The muscles were identified during routine cadaver prosection at the School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand. Here, we report two cases of the sternalis muscle in two South African White cadavers. Analysis of the sternalis muscles revealed unilaterally present, distinctly defined muscle masses on the right (case number 1, female) and left (case number 2, male) hemithorax, lateral to the sternum. The muscles occurred with a prevalence of 2.25% within the cadaveric population examined. The prevalence of the sternalis muscle is generally low, especially in the European population. Their presence represents the remnants of the cutaneous muscles in the ventral thorax of lower animals. Clinically, the sternalis muscle may be misinterpreted as a pathological mass or lesion, thus accurate knowledge regarding its variations and prevalence is of importance.

Objective: To determine the association between pectoralis minor length (PML) and the acromiohumeral distance (AHD) in the symptomatic (S) and the asymptomatic (A) shoulder of subjects with chronic shoulder pain, and in shoulder free of pain controls (C). Furthermore, to analyze the relationship between PML and shoulder pain-function and range of movement (ROM) free of pain., Design: A cross sectional study., Setting: Primary care centres., Participants: A sample of fifty-four participants with chronic shoulder pain in their dominant arm was recruited, as well as fifty-four participants with shoulder free of pain., Main Outcome Measures: PML test and AHD measured by ultrasound., Results: There was a non statistical significant correlation between PML and AHD for all the groups at both 0° (S = 0.03, p = 0.29; A = 0.06, p = 0.66; C = -0.17, p = 0.29) and 60° (S = -0.10, p = 0.84; A = -0.18, p = 0.19; C = -0.03, p = 0.84) of shoulder elevation. Likewise, there was a non statistical significant correlation between PML and shoulder pain-function (0.09, p = 0.52), and ROM (-0.13, p = 0.35)., Conclusions: PML is poorly associated with AHD, as well as with shoulder pain and mobility, in people with chronic shoulder pain. Other biomechanics alterations, as well as the presence of central/peripheral sensitization should be considered., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To perform a quantitative anatomic evaluation of the (1) coracoid process, specifically the attachment sites of the conjoint tendon, the pectoralis minor, the coracoacromial ligament (CAL), and the coracoclavicular (CC) ligaments in relation to pertinent osseous and soft tissue landmarks; (2) CC ligaments' attachments on the clavicle; and (3) CAL attachment on the acromion in relation to surgically relevant anatomic landmarks to assist in planning of the Latarjet procedure, acromioclavicular (AC) joint reconstructions, and CAL resection distances avoiding iatrogenic injury to surrounding structures., Methods: Ten nonpaired fresh-frozen human cadaveric shoulders (mean age 52 years, range 33-64 years) were included in this study. A 3-dimensional coordinate measuring device was used to quantify the location of pertinent bony landmarks and soft tissue attachment areas. The ligament and tendon attachment perimeters and center points on the coracoid, clavicle, and acromion were identified and subsequently dissected off the bone. Coordinates of points along the perimeters of attachment sites were used to calculate areas, whereas coordinates of center points were used to determine distances between surgically relevant attachment sites and pertinent bony landmarks., Results: The CAL had a single consistent acromial attachment (mean area 77 mm [51.9, 102.2]) and then bifurcated into 2 bundles, anterior and posterior, that separately inserted on the lateral aspect of the coracoid. The footprint areas were 54.4 mm 2 [31.7, 77.2] and 30.6 mm 2 [23.4, 37.7] for the anterior and posterior CAL bundles, respectively. These anterior and posterior bundles attached 10.6 mm [8.4, 12.9] and 24.8 mm [12.3, 27.4] medial and proximal to the apex of the coracoid process, respectively. The minimum distance between the coracoid apex and the trapezoid ligament was 25.1 mm [22.1, 28.1] and was noted to be different in males (28.1 mm [25.1; 31.2]) and females (22.0 mm [18.2, 25.9]). The most lateral insertion of the CC ligaments on the clavicle the AC joint was 15.7 mm [13.1, 18.3]. The distance between the most medial to the most lateral point of the CC ligaments on the clavicle was 25.6 mm [22.3, 28.9], which accounted for 18.2% [15.8, 20.6] of the clavicle length., Conclusions: In contrast to previous findings, 2 different coracoid attachments (anterior and posterior bundles) of the CAL were consistently identified in all specimens. Moreover, a coracoid osteotomy for a bone graft for the Latarjet procedure should be performed at less than 28.1/22 mm from the apex of the coracoid in male/female patients, respectively. The CC ligaments' attachments on the clavicle were located 15.7 mm from the AC joint, which should be considered for reconstruction., Clinical Relevance: During the Latarjet technique, to maintain the integrity of the CC ligaments, precise knowledge of differences between male and female anatomy is necessary during a coracoid osteotomy. Furthermore, when reconstructing the AC joint, the distance from the lateral aspect of the clavicle and the size of the attachments areas should be considered to better replicate the native anatomy., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

During dual plane breast augmentation (DPBA), the costal origin of the pectoralis major (the PM) should be cut to ensure appropriate coverage and positioning of an implant. However, surgeons sometimes make inappropriate planar incisions and insufficient muscular incisions because the external abdominal oblique (the EAO) muscle partially overlaps the lateral portion of the PM. The goal of this study was to clarify the positional relationship between the PM and EAO with the aim of improving the accuracy of implant and muscular incisions during DPBA. Forty sides of 20 embalmed and fresh cadavers were dissected. The midline and midclavicular line (MCL) were used as reference lines for measurements. We clarified the overlapping patterns between the PM and EAO, and measured the distances from the MCL to the borders of those two muscles. The costal part of the PM originated from the 5th (25%), 6th (70%), or 7th rib (5%), respectively. The distances from the MCL to the lateral border of the PM at the 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs were 49.8 mm, 30.5 mm, and 6.3 mm, respectively. In 90% of the specimens, the PM and the EAO overlapped near the MCL. The width of the overlapping portion between the PM and EAO was about 25 mm. This study is one of the first to suggest an innovative approach for explaining the positional relationships between the PM and EAO. Our findings can be useful for surgeons attempting to produce optimal outcomes in DPBA, especially in procedures that involve patients of different races. Clin. Anat. 31:339-346, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Pectoralis major rupture is an uncommon injury often treated surgically, requiring anatomic knowledge of the tendon insertion. This study defines the pectoralis major tendon insertion footprint and a novel anatomic relationship. Twelve cadaver shoulders were evaluated andmeasured using a standard surgical ruler to demonstrate the normal anatomic footprint. Measurements were taken from the anterior medial margin of the articular surface of the humeral head to the superior margin of the pectoralis major insertion and its relation to the latissimus dorsi tendon insertion. The average length and width of the pectoralis major insertion were 73.3 ± 10.0 mm and 3.3 ± 0.54 mm, respectively, consistent with previous publications. On average, the superior margin of the pectoralis tendon was within 1 mm of the latissimus dorsi insertion and 41.2 ± 9.27 mm from the articular margin. These points form a new anatomic reference of the latissimus dorsi, providing an intraoperative reference point when performing pectoralis major muscle tendon repair. (Journal of Surgical Orthopaedic Advances 27(1):39-41, 2018).

Purpose: To provide a quantitative and qualitative anatomic analysis of the pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi on the humerus, as well as the deltoid tendinous attachments on the proximal humerus and acromion, and to quantitatively characterize the humeral course of the axillary nerve., Methods: Ten nonpaired, fresh-frozen human cadaveric shoulders were analyzed. A portable coordinate-measuring device quantified the location of bony landmarks and tendon attachment areas. The tendon footprints were recorded by tracing their outlines and center points. The footprint areas of the tendons, the distances between the footprint areas and pertinent osseous and soft-tissue landmarks, and the distance between where the axillary nerve courses across the humerus relative to the acromion and greater tuberosity were measured., Results: Of the 10 specimens, 9 (90%) had 5 distinct tendinous bands attaching the deltoid to the acromion; 1 specimen had 4 bands. The distances between the center of the deltoid footprint on the humerus and the centers of the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and teres major tendon footprints on the humerus were 43.5 mm, 58.5 mm, and 49.4 mm, respectively. The shortest distances from the perimeter of the pectoralis major to the latissimus dorsi and teres major tendon footprints were 3.9 mm and 9.5 mm, respectively. The distance from the superior aspect of the greater tuberosity to the axillary nerve on the humeral shaft was 50.3 mm (95% confidence interval, 47.0-53.5 mm). The distance from the lateral acromion to the axillary nerve was 69.3 mm (95% confidence interval, 64.1-74.5 mm)., Conclusions: The deltoid muscle had 4 to 5 tendinous insertions on the acromion, and the axillary nerve was 50.3 mm from the tip of the greater tuberosity. The distance between the lower border of the pectoralis major and the axillary nerve was 9.4 mm., Clinical Relevance: Knowledge of the quantitative anatomy of the tendons of the proximal humerus and axillary nerve can aid in identifying structures of interest during open shoulder surgery and in avoiding iatrogenic axillary nerve injury. Furthermore, this study provides direction to avoid injury to the deltoid tendons during open surgery., (Copyright © 2017 Arthroscopy Association of North America. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this trial was to study the effects of dietary protein content during the rearing period on the performance of mule ducks, according to age at overfeeding (O). Ducks (n = 612) were divided into four groups differing in the protein content in the diet offered during the starting period (S, 0-20 days; S l vs. S h : 150 vs. 175 g/kg crude protein (CP)) and growing-finishing period (GF; 21-67 or 81 days, depending on age at O; GF l vs. GF h : 133 vs. 152 g/kg CP). The relative weight of pectoral muscle was lower when ducks were fed a low protein diet during S (-5%, P < 0.01) or GF period (-6%, P < 0.001) at 68 days and higher in ducks of the S l GF h group (+6%; P < 0.05) at 82 days. Both foie gras and magret weights fell when ducks were fed S l or GF l (P < 0.05 and < 0.01). Mortality during the O period was higher in ducks fed the S l diet and overfed at late age (7.4% vs. 0%; P < 0.01). In conclusion, a reduction in the dietary protein supply should be recommended only during the GF period for ducks overfed at a late age., (© 2017 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

We have analyzed anatomic variations in the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor muscles of common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) and compared them to anatomic variations in these muscles in humans (Homo sapiens) . We have macroscopically dissected these muscles in six adult Pan troglodytes , five Pan paniscus of ages ranging from fetus to adult, and five adult Homo sapiens . Although Pan troglodytes are thought to lack a separate pectoralis abdominis muscle, we have identified this muscle in three of the Pan troglodytes ; none of the Pan paniscus , however, had this muscle. We have also found deep supernumerary fascicles in the pectoralis major of two Pan troglodytes and all five Pan paniscus . In all six Pan troglodytes , the pectoralis minor was inserted at the supraspinatus tendon, while, in Pan paniscus and Homo sapiens , it was inserted at the coracoid process of the scapula. Some of the anatomic features and variations of these muscles in common chimpanzees and bonobos are similar to those found in humans, therefore enhancing our knowledge of primate comparative anatomy and evolution and also shedding light on several clinical issues.

Background: Age-related hyperkyphosis causes deleterious effects on health, physical function, and quality of life. Recently, health care providers recognized it as a major health concern., Objective: To identify the effect of corrective exercise strategy on hyperkyphosis and compare it with that of conventional exercise., Methods: Subjects were randomly categorized into two groups. Each group comprised 30 subjects. Group A received the corrective exercise strategy, and group B received conventional exercises for 8 weeks of the study duration (15 repetitions of each exercise for three sessions/day for a total duration of 45 min and 4 days/week. Pre- and post-interventional hyperkyphosis were analyzed according to posture number using the Posture Pro 8 postural analysis software. In addition, pectoralis minor flexibility was assessed using the ruler scale method in centimeters., Results: Both groups showed highly significant postural alteration and changes in pectoralis minor muscle length (p< 0.001)CONCLUSIONS:The corrective exercise strategy seems to promote scapular stability and produce a more upright posture of the upper thoracic spine.

Computer-aided diagnosis systems (CADx) play a major role in the early diagnosis of breast cancer. Extracting the breast region precisely from a mammogram is an essential component of CADx for mammography. The appearance of the pectoral muscle on medio-lateral oblique (MLO) views increases the false positive rate in CADx. Therefore, the pectoral muscle should be identified and removed from the breast region in an MLO image before further analysis. None of the previous pectoral muscle segmentation methods address all breast types based on the breast imaging-reporting and data system tissue density classes. In this paper, we deal with this deficiency by introducing a new simple yet effective method that combines geometric rules with a region growing algorithm to support the segmentation of all types of pectoral muscles (normal, convex, concave, and combinatorial). Experimental segmentation accuracy results were reported for four tissue density classes on 872 MLO images from three publicly available datasets. An average Jaccard index and Dice similarity coefficient of 0.972 ± 0.003 and 0.985 ± 0.001 were obtained, respectively. The mean Hausdorff distance between the contours detected by our method and the ground truth is below 5 mm for all datasets. An average acceptable segmentation rate of ∼95% was achieved outperforming several state-of-the-art competing methods. Excellent results were obtained even for the most challenging class of extremely dense breasts.Computer-aided diagnosis systems (CADx) play a major role in the early diagnosis of breast cancer. Extracting the breast region precisely from a mammogram is an essential component of CADx for mammography. The appearance of the pectoral muscle on medio-lateral oblique (MLO) views increases the false positive rate in CADx. Therefore, the pectoral muscle should be identified and removed from the breast region in an MLO image before further analysis. None of the previous pectoral muscle segmentation methods address all breast types based on the breast imaging-reporting and data system tissue density classes. In this paper, we deal with this deficiency by introducing a new simple yet effective method that combines geometric rules with a region growing algorithm to support the segmentation of all types of pectoral muscles (normal, convex, concave, and combinatorial). Experimental segmentation accuracy results were reported for four tissue density classes on 872 MLO images from three publicly available datasets. An average Jaccard index and Dice similarity coefficient of 0.972 ± 0.003 and 0.985 ± 0.001 were obtained, respectively. The mean Hausdorff distance between the contours detected by our method and the ground truth is below 5 mm for all datasets. An average acceptable segmentation rate of ∼95% was achieved outperforming several state-of-the-art competing methods. Excellent results were obtained even for the most challenging class of extremely dense breasts.

Introduction: Patients on chronic hemodialysis tend to lose lean body mass and have sedentary behavior., Objective: To compare the level of physical activity and the morphology of the muscles pectoralis major and rectus abdominis of patients on hemodialysis with healthy subjects., Methods: We studied 17 patients and 17 healthy individuals. Muscle thickness were evaluated by ultrasound, and the level of physical activity by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), long version., Results: The patients had lower thicknesses of the pectoralis major (5.92 ± 0.35 mm vs. 8.35 ± 0.62 mm, p < 0.001) and rectus abdominis (0.96 ± 0.10 mm vs. 2 21 ± 0.40 mm, p < 0.001) compared to healthy subjects. Patients were physically less active than healthy individuals: 1502.55(788.19-2513.00) MET-minutes/week vs. 2268.0(1680.0-4490,8) MET-minutes/week (p = 0.006); the weekly caloric expenditure of patients was also lower: 1384.0(480,7-2253.7) kcal/kg/week vs. 1680.0(1677.4-4950.0) kcal/kg/week (p = 0.010). The average time spent sitting per week of the patients was higher than in healthy subjects (394.0 ± 33.1 min/day vs. 293.0 ± 38.6, p = 0.009) as well as the average time spent sitting during weekend (460.0 ± 40.1 vs. 201.0 ± 10.7, p = 0.003)., Conclusion: Chronic renal failure patients on hemodialysis have sedentary behavior and lower muscle thickness of the trunk.

Purpose: To report the in vivo characteristics of the long head of the biceps tendon (LHBT); to evaluate the relation of age, gender, height, weight, and body mass index to the length and sutured and tubularized diameter of the LHBT; and to determine the smallest possible tunnel diameter for a subpectoral biceps tenodesis (SPBT) that can accommodate most patients., Methods: The study included 66 patients (33 men and 33 women) with an average age of 54 years (range, 29-73 years) undergoing SPBT. After tenotomy, the length from the biceps musculotendinous junction to the released end was measured. The tendon was transected 3 cm proximal to the musculotendinous junction and sutured, and the diameter was measured. The depth of the reamed tunnel was recorded., Results: The average tendon length was 84.0 mm, measuring 91.9 mm in men and 76.2 mm in women (P < .001), and the average tendon diameter was 4.4 mm, varying slightly between men (4.5 mm) and women (4.3 mm) (P < .001). Mean bone tunnel depth was 17.5 mm, with 19 mm in men and 16.1 mm in women (P < .001). Patient height showed a significant relation to both tendon length and tendon diameter. Weight was not correlated with tendon diameter but did show a significant relation to tendon length., Conclusions: We have characterized the in vivo length and diameter of the LHBT at the time of an SPBT. Our findings have shown that there was a statistically significant gender difference in tendon length and diameter, but the diameter of the sutured tendon, which was placed into the tunnel, averaged 4.4 mm and ranged from 3.5 to 5 mm for all ages, both genders, all heights, and all weights. This finding is clinically relevant in that a small tunnel measuring 5.5 mm or less is sufficient to perform an SPBT., Level of Evidence: Level IV, case series, anatomic study., (Copyright © 2017 Arthroscopy Association of North America. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Synopsis: Flight is the defining characteristic of birds, yet the mechanisms through which flight ability develops are only beginning to be understood. Wing-assisted incline running (WAIR) and controlled flapping descent (CFD) are behaviors that may offer significant adaptive benefits to developing birds. Recent research into these forms of locomotion has focused on species with precocial development, with a particularly rich data set from chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar). Here we briefly review the kinematics and aerodynamics of flight development in this species. We then present novel measurements of the development of pectoralis contractile behavior during the ontogenetic transition toward powered flight. To obtain these new empirical data, we used indwelling electromyography (EMG) and sonomicrometry and tested WAIR and CFD in seven age classes of chukar (n = 2-4 birds per age) from 5 days post hatching (dph) to adult (300+ dph). For each age class, we measured muscle activity during maximal performance, which was WAIR at 65° in birds 5 dph, CFD in birds 9 dph, WAIR at 80° in birds 14 dph, level flight in birds 25-61 dph, and ascending flight in adults. We also measured muscle activity during sub-maximal performance in all age classes. Flapping chukar chicks use near-continuous activation of their pectoralis at relatively low electromyography amplitudes for the first 8 days and progress to stereotypic higher-amplitude activation bursts by Day 12. The pectoralis undergoes increasing strain at higher strain rates with age, and length trajectory becomes more asymmetrical with greater variation in contractile velocity within the shortening phase of individual contractions. At 20-25 days (12-15% adult chukar mass), pectoralis activity and locomotor performance approaches that of adults, although strain rate exhibits a temporary decrease at 61 dph concurrent with using newly-replaced primary feathers. To better understand how these patterns relate to the evolution of life-history strategy and locomotion, we encourage future efforts to explore these behaviors in altricial and semi-altricial bird species., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objectives: To investigate inter-rater reliability of a set of shoulder measurements including inclinometry [shoulder range of motion (ROM)], acromion-table distance and pectoralis minor muscle length (static scapular positioning), upward rotation with two inclinometers (scapular kinematics) and pain pressure thresholds (muscle tenderness) in middle-aged women., Design: Observational study., Participants: Thirty symptom-free middle-aged women (first cohort) were measured by two raters. All measurements with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) below 0.75 were retested after an additional training period in a second cohort of 30 symptom-free middle-aged women., Main Outcome Measures: Inter-rater reliability of all variables was measured with the ICC (95% confidence interval) and standard error of measurement (SEM)., Results: Acromion-table distance (ICC=0.91, SEM 0.22 to 0.28% of body length), pectoralis minor muscle length (ICC=0.91, SEM 0.16% of body length), pain pressure thresholds (ICC=0.78 to 0.85, SEM 0.39 to 0.70kg) and abduction ROM (ICC=0.77, SEM 5°) showed good to excellent inter-rater reliability in the first cohort. After an additional training period, forward flexion ROM showed good inter-rater reliability (ICC=0.83, SEM 5°), scapular upward rotation in resting position showed moderate reliability (ICC=0.52, SEM 2°), and other scaption angles showed weak reliability (ICC=0.26 to 0.43, SEM 3 to 8°)., Conclusions: In a battery of clinical tools to evaluate factors contributing to shoulder pain, static scapular positioning and pressure pain thresholds were found to have good to excellent inter-rater reliability in middle-aged women. Additional training is recommended for measurements with a gravity inclinometer., (Copyright © 2016 Chartered Society of Physiotherapy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The preference of modern consumers for high-quality meat has forced breeders to use native breeds to produce capons. Caponization, both chemical and surgical, leads to androgen deficiency and changes in lipid metabolism and results in the accumulation of abdominal, subcutaneous, and intramuscular lipids, which change the sensory values of the meat. The aim of this study was to histologically evaluate selected skeletal muscles from Greenleg Partridge capons and cockerels. We examined lipid localization in the muscular tissue and also assessed both fiber type and fiber diameter in the pectoral muscles. The experiment was performed on 200 Greenleg Partridge cockerels and testes were removed at 8 wk of age. At 12, 16, 20, 24, and 28 wk of age, 6 cockerels and 6 capons were slaughtered, and samples from the pectoral and thigh muscles were evaluated. Our histopathological evaluation revealed only minimal changes, and no significant differences between capons and cockerels were observed. The pectoral and thigh muscles of the capons had higher concentrations of lipids around the blood vessels, in the perimysium, in the endomysium, and in the sarcoplasm. The analysis of fiber type in the Pectoralis major muscles revealed that the fibers were all the IIB type. The diameters of the fibers of the pectoral muscles were significantly different (P < 0.05) at 20, 24, and 28 wk of age, and diameters of the giant fibers were significantly different (P < 0.05) at 24 and 28 wk of age. High concentrations of lipids in the meat of the capons is undesirable due to health-related reasons. However, the ability of adipose tissue to improve the sensory values of meat will always be a major quality of native/traditional products., (© 2017 Poultry Science Association Inc.)

Understanding the anatomy of the muscles and other structures of the chest is of great importance in breast surgery. We have conducted the first analysis of the overall variations and relationships among the pectoralis major (PM), inframammary fold (IMF), and pectoralis minor (Pm). We studied 30 patients and 10 cadavers, leading to a total of 50 breasts. Preoperatively, the breast width was measured, and the costal origin of the lowest IMF point was marked. Intraoperatively, we recorded the costal origins of the PM and IMF, PM width, the distance between the PM and IMF, and the relationship and distance between the PM and Pm. Among the patients, PMs originated from the sixth rib in 80% and above the IMF in 66.67%. The mean distances between the PM and IMF were 10.5 mm in the patients and 16 mm in the cadavers. The mean PM/breast width ratio was 0.82 in the patients and 0.85 in the cadavers. The PM and Pm mostly crossed on the fourth or fifth rib, and the average angles between the two muscles were 23.5° and 21.4° in the patients and cadavers, respectively. This study is the first to analyze the anatomical variations of the PM, IMF, and Pm simultaneously. We also examined the differences between Western and Asian populations. Understanding the anatomy is undoubtedly crucial for breast surgery, and here we provide a firm guide to the variations to be expected during operations, which can lead to successful outcomes. Clin. Anat. 30:357-361, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The aim of this paper was to review the anatomy the platysma systematically.The term "platysma AND anatomy" was used to search PubMed and Scopus, producing 394 and 214 papers, respectively. After excluding 95 duplicate titles, 513 abstracts and 98 full papers were reviewed. Among these 98 papers, 83 were excluded and 5 were added. Ultimately, 20 papers were analyzed.The most common aging-related change of the platysma was shortening (70.7%), followed by thinning (25.2%). The platysma most commonly originated from the upper portion of thorax anterior to clavicle (67.7%), followed by the subcutaneous tissue of the subclavicular and acromial regions (22.6%) and pectoralis (9.7%). The platysma ascended upward and medially (68.5%) or ascended from the clavicle to the face (31.5%). The platysma most commonly inserted on the cheek skin (57.5%), followed by the cutaneous muscles around the mouth (18.6%), the mandibulocutaneous ligament or zygoma (18.6%), and the parotid fascia or periosteum of the mandible (5.3%). The platysma was most commonly innervated by the cervical branch of the facial nerve (38.2%) or the cervical branch and mandibular branch of the facial nerve (60.5%), followed by the cervical plexus (0.6%), the cervical motor nucleus (0.6%), and the glossopharyngeal nerve (0.1%). The most common action of the platysma was drawing the lips inferiorly (83.3%) or posteriorly (12.9%). Four papers classified the platysma into subtypes; however, these classification strategies used arbitrary standards.Further studies will be necessary to establish the thickness of the platysma and to characterize age-related changes of the platysma.

Responses to changes in dietary Lys and other essential amino acid (AA) concentrations were evaluated in 480 male and female broilers originating from two lines divergently selected for high (pHu+) or low (pHu-) ultimate pH (pHu) of breast muscle. The two genetic lines were fed with two grower isoenergetic diets differing in both true digestible Lys (control=10.2 g/kg and experimental=7.0 g/kg) and amounts of other essential AA calculated in relation to Lys, which were sufficient for the control diet or in excess for the experimental diet. There were six repetitions per treatment. Birds were weighed individually at days 0, 21, 28 and 43. Feed consumption was recorded per pen and feed conversion was calculated over the growing period. The physical activity and walking ability of broilers were recorded during the whole rearing period. Breast and leg yield, and abdominal fat percentage were measured at 43 days of age, as were pHu, color, drip and cooking loss, Warner-Bratzler shear force, and curing-cooking yield of the breast Pectoralis major and pHu of the thigh Sartorius muscle. Divergent selection greatly affected most breast meat quality traits without significantly changing growth rate or feed efficiency. When subjected to a variation in dietary intake of AA, birds from the two genotypes responded in a similar way in terms of animal's growth, feed efficiency, body composition and meat quality traits. Although line and diet did not affect physical or feeding activities of the broilers, a significant effect of line-by-diet interaction was observed on gait score. Contrary to the pHu- birds, the walking ability of pHu+ birds was impaired when fed the control diet that favored growth and breast muscle development and limited storage of carbohydrate in muscle.

As the pectoralis minor muscle is inserted into the coracoid process, an improper length of this muscle would affect scapular and shoulder motions. Therefore, this study is proposed to assess the effects on pectoralis minor's length and acromial distance after active scapular retraction in scaption at 60° elevation. Sixty right-hand-dominant participants (11 males, 49 females) were randomized into an intervention group and a control group. The intervention group performed pectoralis minor muscle stretching by active scapular retraction, while the control group were asked to sit in an upright position. The result shows that, the mean lengths of pectoralis minor in the intervention group were significantly increased when compared with those of the control group (p = 0.004 and p = 0.014 respectively). Simultaneously, the reduction in acromial distance of this intervention group was substantially greater than the control group's (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001 respectively). However, it should be noted that the results reported only relate to the period immediately following muscle stretching., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Study Design: Parallel-group intervention with repeated measures., Introduction: Shortening of the pectoralis minor (PM) may contribute to alterations in scapular kinematics., Purpose of the Study: To evaluate the effects of a stretching protocol on function, muscle length, and scapular kinematics in subjects with and without shoulder pain., Methods: A sample of 25 patients with shoulder pain and 25 healthy subjects with PM tightness performed a daily stretching protocol for 6 weeks. Outcome measures included Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand questionnaire, PM length, and scapular kinematics., Results: Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand scores decreased (P < .05) in the patient group at post-intervention. No differences (P > .05) were found for PM length in both groups. Scapular anterior tilt increased (P < .05) at 90° of flexion in the healthy group., Discussion: This study demonstrated that a daily home stretching protocol significantly decreases pain and improves function in subjects with shoulder pain. The mechanism responsible for these improvements does not appear directly related to PM muscle length or scapula kinematics, suggesting that other neuromuscular mechanisms are involved., Conclusion: The PM stretching protocol did not change the PM length or scapular kinematics in subjects with or without shoulder pain. However, pain and function of the upper limbs improved in patients with shoulder pain., Level of Evidence: 2b., (Copyright © 2016 Hanley & Belfus. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)