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People routinely use news outlets and social media platforms to keep up with recent events. While information from these common sources often aligns in the messages conveyed, news headlines and microblogs on social media also frequently provide contradictory messages. In this study, we examined how people recall and recognize tweets and news headlines when these sources provide inconsistent messaging. We tested this question in person (Experiment 1) and online (Experiment 2). Participants studied news headlines and tweets that provided either consistent messaging or inconsistent messaging, then completed a free recall and recognition memory task sequentially, and provided confidence ratings for recognition judgments. Findings were similar across memory tasks and experiments: Participants had better memory for tweets than news headlines regardless of message consistency. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding memory in the digital age where social media use is widespread and messaging across sources is often inconsistent.

This meta-analysis examines the association between exposure to community violence and parenting behaviors (i.e., positive parenting, harsh/neglectful parenting, parent–child relationship quality, and behavior control). A systematic search yielded 437 articles that measured community violence exposure before or at the time of parenting, assessed parenting, and were available in English. There were 342 effect sizes across parenting constructs: positive (k = 101; 68 studies), harsh/neglectful (k = 95; 60 studies), relationship quality (k = 68; 41 studies), and behavior control (k = 78; 51 studies), from 160 reports representing 147 distinct studies. Results of the three-level meta-analyses found small but significant effects between community violence and positive parenting (r = −.059, 95% CI [−.086, −.032]; 95% PI [−.268,.151]), harsh/neglectful parenting (r =.133, 95% CI [.100,.166]; 95% PI [−.107,.372]), parent–child relationship quality (r = −.106, 95% CI [−.145, −.067]; 95% PI [−.394,.182]), and behavior control (r = −.047, 95% CI [−.089, −.005]; 95% PI [−.331,.237]). The association between exposure to community violence and harsh/neglectful parenting and behavior control was moderated by the type of exposure to community violence, informant or source of community violence and parenting data, child age, sex, and race/ethnicity. Given the substantial degree of heterogeneity in overall effect sizes, implications for policy and intervention are tentatively considered while emphasizing that more empirical research on the association between community violence and parenting is essential for advancing the field. Public Significance Statement: Given growing rates of community violence, research examining the correlates of community violence and their effects on children and families is timely. The current meta-analytic review suggests that greater exposure to community violence is associated with reduced positive parenting, poorer parent–child relationship quality, reduced behavior control, and increased harsh/neglectful parenting. Due to substantial variability in the direction and magnitude of effect sizes, more research is needed to inform intervention and policy initiatives, particularly within neighborhoods affected by community violence. It is important that neighborhood conditions support, rather than challenge, responsive parenting. To ensure that the onus of responsibility is not solely placed on parents, multisystemic interventions at the individual level (i.e., to build children's resilience), family level (i.e., to support positive caregiving), school level (i.e., to foster violence awareness), and the broader community level (i.e., to curtail growing incidences of crime through community reinvestment policies) are critical to ensure the well-being of children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]