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Pure culture studies have shown that biofilm dispersal can be triggered if the nutrient supply is discontinued by stopping the flow. Stimulating biofilm dispersal in this manner would provide a sustainable manner to control unwanted biofilm growth in industrial settings, for instance on synthetic membranes used to purify water. The response of multispecies biofilms to nutrient limitation has not been thoroughly studied. To assess biomass dispersal during nutrient limitation it is common practise to flush the biofilm after a stop-period. Hence, flow-stop-induced biomass removal could occur as a response to nutrient limitation followed by mechanical removal due to biofilm flushing (e.g. biofilm detachment). Here, we investigated the feasibility to reduce membrane biofouling by stopping the flow and flushing the membrane. Using a membrane fouling simulator, biomass removal from synthetic membranes after different stop-periods was determined, as well as biomass removal at different cross flow velocities. Biomass removal from membrane surfaces depended on the nutrient limiting period and on the flow velocity during the biofilm flush. When flushed at a low flow velocity (0.1 m.s−1), the duration of the stop-period had a large effect on the biomass removal rate, but when the flow velocity was increased to 0.2 m.s−1, the length of the stop period became less considerable. The flow velocity during membrane flushing has an effect on the bacterial community that colonized the membranes afterwards. Repetition of the stop-period and biofilm flushing after three repetitive biofouling cycles led to a stable bacterial community. The increase in bacterial community stability coincided with a decrease in cleaning effectivity to restore membrane performance. This shows that membrane cleaning comes at the costs of a more stable bacterial community that is increasingly difficult to remove.

Membrane filtration systems are widely applied for the production of clean drinking water. However, the accumulation of particles on synthetic membranes leads to fouling. Biological fouling (i.e., biofouling) of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes is difficult to control by existing cleaning procedures. Improved strategies are therefore needed. The bacterial diversity on fouled membranes has been studied, especially to identify bacteria with specialized functions and to develop targeted approaches against these microbes. Previous studies have shown that Sphingomonadaceae are initial membrane colonizers that remain dominant while the biofilm develops. Here, we characterized 21 Sphingomonadaceae isolates, obtained from six different fouled membranes, to determine which physiological traits could contribute to colonization of membrane surfaces. Their growth conditions ranged from temperatures between 8 and 42 oC, salinity between 0.0 and 5.0% w/v NaCl, pH from 4 and 10, and all isolates were able to metabolize a wide range of substrates. The results presented here show that Sphingomonadaceae membrane isolates share many features that are uncommon for other members of the Sphingomonadaceae family: all membrane isolates are motile and their tolerance for different temperatures, salt concentrations, and pH is high. Although relative abundance is an indicator of fitness for a whole group, for the Sphingomonadaceae it does not reveal the specific physiological traits that are required for membrane colonization. This study, therefore, adds to more fundamental insights in membrane biofouling., Biological fouling: Physiology of Sphingomonadaceae in fouled filtering membranes Water filtration systems inevitably become colonized by a diverse range of microorganism; an early colonizer, Sphingomonadaceae, is now shown to be uncommonly motile and have high tolerance to changes in temperature, salt concentration and pH when growing in biofouled membranes. Although bacterial diversity in biofouled membranes has been studied extensively, targeted strategies to prevent or reverse colonization are still lacking. Hendrik J. de Vries and colleagues studied 21 Sphingomonadaceae isolates from six fouled membranes, and observed a higher tolerance to growth in temperatures between 8 and 42 °C, 0.0 to 5.0% w/v NaCl, and pH between 4 and 10, as well as an increased twitching motility and active pili. These adaptive physiological properties are thought to be advantageous by facilitating membrane surface colonization, and may explain why Sphingomonadaceae are resistant to fouled membrane cleaning procedures.

Membrane bioreactor (MBR) systems need to be controlled in order to extend the period of effective performance. The local critical flux (LCF) concept is a good starting point for a modelbased control strategy. Use of a novel linearly reparametrized recursive parameter estimation technique illustrated that, instead of a constant, the transmembrane pressure parameter is timevarying and obeying a hyperbolic relationship with respect to time. The hyperbolic relationship, which allows a physical interpretation, was substituted in the original LCF model. The modified LCF model was subsequently used in a linearly reparametrized recursive state estimator for the estimation of mass of deposited solutes and the number of open pores. Copyright © 2015 IFAC

The potential of a membrane bioreactor (MBR) system to treat Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction water from gas-to-liquids (GTL) industries was investigated and compared with the current treatment system: a conventional activated sludge system followed by an ultrafiltration (CAS-UF) unit. The MBR and the CAS-UF systems were inoculated with municipal activated sludge and operated in parallel for 645 days with four interruptions using synthetic FT reaction water. Both treatment systems achieved a removal efficiency of 98 ± 0.1% within 60 days after inoculation, the COD influent concentration was 1014 ± 15 mg L−1. This suggests that MBRs form a suitable alternative to CAS-UF systems for the treatment of FT reaction water from the GTL industries. Moreover, the total fouling rates (Ft) of the membranes used from day 349 till the end were assessed. The average Ft was 7.3 ± 1.0 1010 m−1 day−1 for CAS-UF membranes and 2.8 ± 00.7 1010 m−1 day−1 for MBR-MT membranes. This indicates that MBR systems for the treatment of FT reaction water from the gas-to-liquids industries are less prone to fouling than CAS-UF systems.

Long-term performance and fouling behavior of four full-scale nanofiltration (NF) plants, treating anoxic groundwater at 80% recovery for drinking water production, were characterized and compared with oxic NF and reverse osmosis systems. Plant operating times varied between 6 and 10 years and pretreatment was limited to 10 µm pore size cartridge filtration and antiscalant dosage (2–2.5 mg L −1 ) only. Membrane performance parameters normalized pressure drop (NPD), normalized specific water permeability ( K w ) and salt retention generally were found stable over extended periods of operation (>6 months). Standard acid–base cleanings (once per year or less) were found to be sufficient to maintain satisfying operation during direct NF of the described iron rich (≤8.4 mg L −1 ) anoxic groundwaters. Extensive autopsies of eight NF membrane elements, which had been in service since the plant startup (6–10 years), were performed to characterize and quantify the material accumulated in the membrane elements. Investigations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), total organic carbon (TOC) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) measurements revealed a complex mixture of organic, biological and inorganic materials. The fouling layers that developed during half to one year of operation without chemical cleaning were very thin ( The high solubility of reduced metal ions and the very slow biofilm development under anoxic conditions prevented rapid fouling during direct NF of the studied groundwaters. When compared to oxic NF and RO systems in general (e.g. aerated ground waters or surface waters), the operation and performance of the described anoxic installations (with minimal pretreatment) can be described as very stable.

Several membrane fouling mechanisms have been identified in membrane bioreactors. While cake layers can be removed by physical cleaning, irreversible fouling such as a gel layer is difficult to remove by physical cleaning during filtration. Harsh mechanical cleaning was applied in this study to evaluate how much fouling could be maximally removed and distribution of remaining fouling was investigated. The fouling resistance of several membranes operated at different relatively low fluxes was followed during long term continuous flux operation. Remaining fouling was observed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Dead-end filtration tests with mechanically cleaned membranes showed a decreased permeability. To determine whether bacteria were present in the remaining fouling, oxygen consumption was quantified. Even after harsh mechanical cleaning, membrane samples showed considerable oxygen consumption. SEM did not show fouling inside the membrane. Of several membranes operated for at least 1 year, the permeate side was covered with bacteria and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). These results show that fouling cannot be removed completely by harsh mechanical cleaning and that both feed and permeate side of the membrane contains biofouling. This fouling on the permeate side should not be neglected when designing membrane cleaning.

Temperature is known to influence the biological performance of conventional activated sludge systems. In membrane bioreactors (MBRs), temperature not only affects the bioconversion process but is also shown to have an effect on the membrane performance. Four phenomena are generally reported to explain the higher resistance for membrane filtration found at lower temperatures: (1) increased mixed liquor viscosity, reducing the shear stress generated by coarse bubbles, (2) intensified deflocculation, reducing biomass floc size and releasing EPS into the mixed liquor, (3) lower backtransport velocity and (4) reduced biodegradation of COD. Although the higher resistance at low temperatures has been reported in several papers, the relation with supernatant composition has not been investigated before. In this paper, the composition of the soluble fraction of the mixed liquor is related to membrane performance after exposing the sludge to temperature shocks. Flux step experiments were performed in an experimental system at 7, 15, and 25° Celsius with sludge that was continuously recirculated from a pilot-scale MBR. After correcting the permeate viscosity for temperature, higher membrane fouling rates were obtained for the lower temperature in combination with low fouling reversibility. The soluble fraction of the MBR mixed liquor was analysed for polysaccharides, proteins and submicron particle size distribution. At low temperature, a high polysaccharide concentration was found in the experimental system as compared to the MBR pilot. Upon decreasing the temperature of the mixed liquor, a shift was found in particle size towards smaller particles. These results show that the release of polysaccharides and/or submicron particles from sludge flocs could explain the increased membrane fouling at low temperatures.

Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are generally negatively charged polymers. Membrane fouling in membrane bioreactors (MBRs) by EPS is therefore influenced by the water chemistry of the mixed liquor (calcium concentration, foulant concentration and ionic strength). We used alginate as a model compound to study this fouling in detail. Flux-step experiments were performed with a flat sheet test cell, varying the free calcium concentration, total ionic strength and alginate concentration. There was a strong relation between calcium concentration and fouling rate. An increased ionic strength had no impact on fouling rate in low fouling experiments, but decreased fouling with 66–72% at high fouling conditions. Reversibility of the fouling decreased with increasing calcium concentrations to values as low as 3%. Several fouling mechanisms were identified and the reducing effect of increased ionic strength on alginate fouling was explained by competition for carboxyl groups on the alginate polymer. Further research will focus on the interaction of polysaccharides with other compounds typically present in the MBR supernatant (e.g. proteins, humic acids and sludge particles) and a more detailed analysis of the fouling layer.

BioDeNO(x), a novel technique to remove NOx from industrial flue gases, is based on absorption of gaseous nitric oxide into an aqueous Fe(II)EDTA(2-) solution, followed by the biological reduction of Fe(II)EDTA(2-) complexed NO to N-2. Besides NO reduction, high rate biological Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction is a crucial factor for a succesful application of the BioDeNO(x) technology, as it determines the Fe(II)EDTA(2-) concentration in the scrubber liquor and thus the efficiency of NO removal from the gas phase. This paper investigates the mechanism and kinetics of biological Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction by unadapted anaerobic methanogenic sludge and BioDeNO(x) reactor mixed liquor. The influence of different electron donors, electron mediating compounds and CaSO3 on the Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction rate was determined in batch experiments (21 mM Fe(III)EDTA(-), 55 degrees C, pH 7.2 +/- 0.2). The Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction rate depended on the type of electron donor, the highest rate (13.9 mM h(-1)) was observed with glucose, followed by ethanol, acetate and hydrogen. Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction occurred at a relatively slow (4.1 mM h(-1)) rate with methanol as the electron donor. Small amounts (0.5 mM) of sulfide, cysteine or elemental sulfur accelerated the Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction. The amount of iron reduced significantly exceeded the amount that can be formed by the chemical reaction of sulfide with Fe(III)EDTA(-), suggesting that the Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction was accelerated via an auto-catalytic process with an unidentified electron mediating compound, presumably polysulfides. formed out of the sulfur additives, Using ethanol as electron donor, the specific Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction rate was linearly related to the amount of sulfide supplied. CaSO3 (0.5-100 mM) inhibited Fe(III)EDTA(-) reduction, probably because SO32- scavenged the electron mediating compound. 3

BioDeNOx is a novel technique for NOx removal from industrial flue gases. In principle, BioDeNOx is based on NO absorption into an aqueous Fe(II)EDTA2- solution combined with biological regeneration of that scrubber liquor in a bioreactor. The technical and economical feasibility of the BioDeNOx concept is strongly determined by high rate biological regeneration of the aqueous Fe(II)EDTA2- scrubber liquor and by EDTA degradation. This investigation deals with the Fe(II)EDTA2- regeneration capacity and EDTA degradation in a lab-scale BioDeNOx reactor (10-20 mM Fe(II)EDTA2-, pH 7.2 +/- 0.2, 55 degrees C), treating an artificial flue gas (1.5 m3/h) containing 60-155 ppm NO and 3.5-3.9% O2. The results obtained show a contradiction between the optimal redox state of the aqueous FeEDTA solution for NO absorption and the biological regeneration. A low redox potential (below -150 mV vs. Ag/AgCl) is needed to obtain a maximal NO removal efficiency from the gas phase via Fe(II)EDTA2- absorption. Fe(III)EDTA- reduction was found to be too slow to keep all FeEDTA in the reduced state. Stimulation of Fe(III)EDTA- reduction via periodical sulfide additions (2 mM spikes twice a week for the conditions applied in this study) was found to be necessary to regenerate the Fe(II)EDTA2- scrubber liquor and to achieve stable operation at redox potentials below -150 mV (pH 7.2 +/- 0.2). However, redox potentials of below -200 mV should be avoided since sulfide accumulation is unwanted because it is toxic for NO reduction. Very low values for biomass growth rate and yield, respectively, 0.043/d and 0.009 mg protein per mg ethanol, were observed. This might be due to substrate limitations, that is the electron acceptors NO and presumably polysulfide, or to physiological stress conditions induced by the EDTA rich medium or by radicals formed in the scrubber upon the oxidation of Fe(II)EDTA2- by oxygen present in the flue gas. Radicals possibly also induce EDTA degradation, which occurs at a substantial rate: 2.1 (+/-0.1) mM/d under the conditions investigated.

Previous research has demonstrated that powdered activated carbon (PAC), when applied at very low dosages and long SRTs, reduces membrane fouling in membrane bioreactor (MBRs). This effect was related to stronger flocs which are less sensitive to shear. Low temperature and high salt concentration are known to drastically decrease the filterability of the sludge. In this paper the effect of PAC addition on the robustness of MBR when submitted to these disrupting conditions was investigated. PAC amended sludge showed a higher resistance to high salinity with a lower fouling development and release of foulants. When submitted to lower temperatures, the sludge without PAC showed a clear decrease of the filterability, while the filterability of PAC amended sludge was much less affected. PAC addition does not only improve the filterability in the MBR under normal conditions but also when the sludge is submitted to stress. A low PAC dosage could be used during startup and difficult conditions (e.g. winter) to minimize detrimental effects of such conditions.