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The coastal forests of Kenya are global biodiversity hotspots known for rich plant diversity and endemism. They exist as fragmented forest islands, and their current conservation status and quantitative trends in plant diversity are understudied. We investigated these knowledge gaps by providing a comprehensive literature review and comparing to field data collected using standardized sampling protocol. Our goals were to build a robust basis for future analyses, biodiversity monitoring, and to understand the role of fragment area in determining species richness. We recorded a total of 937 woody species belonging to 88 families in 30 forest patches from reviewed and sampled data. Species richness per site from literature review was affected by biases in data scarcity, forest size and variation in sampling methods. In general, large forests reserves of Shimba hills and Arabuko exhibited a high number of cumulative species compared to smaller forest patches. Species-area relationship showed a significant proportion of species richness per forest was determined by forest area, according to Arrhenius model. This study is the first to review forest patch woody plant species diversity knowledge gaps in the coastal forests of Kenya, and the resulting comparison provides the first quantitative overview and foundation of these forests.

Tana River Delta is occupied predominantly by pastoral and farming communities that inhabit defined zones in the Delta. A study was undertaken to assess changes in the lifestyle of communities living in the Delta and its implications on livelihoods and conservation of natural resources. Literature review, household questionnaires, social and resource mapping, key informant interviews, village-based focus group discussion and structured observations were used to collect data. It was evident that the delta communities are aware of the delta resources, their uses, utilization and best management options. Additionally, they were knowledgeable on the delta resources use by non-residents, the resultant conflicts and the food status in the community. They had a good understanding of the new food they would wish to have in their diets and the means of accessing them. Modernity has pushed the community to yearn for development (“Yearn for an Apple”) to access foods that other parts of the country are eating, with implications on livelihoods and conservation of Delta resources. Reversing degradation and enhancing the development of the Delta area require the involvement of all stakeholders, informing and seeking the consensus of decision-makers and the real users of the Tana delta. The Government has to provide overall security and development.

Bird communities composed of habitat specialists suffer considerable loss of species following disturbance (Ecol. Monogr. 41, 1971, 207–233). Participatory forest management (PFM) aims to ensure local ownership and support for forest conservation. This study determined if forest birds and forest quality in places under PFM is significantly higher than areas without PFM in Arabuko-Sokoke forest. Forest quality data were collected in the PFM and no PFM zones in the Mixed forest (MF) and Cynometra Woodland (CW). Plot-based approach was used to collect vegetation data along 1 km transects at intervals of 1 km sampling twenty transects and 200 plots in each of the study zones. Birds’ data were collected using 10-min point-counts along 88, 1 km long transects placed 1-km apart sampling in 30 m radius-plots at intervals of 100 m. Data were collected in 2008 and 2009. The results showed higher measures of forest quality in PFM zones than no PFM zones which showed higher measures of forest disturbance. The results did not show statistical differences in birds’ diversity indexes between PFM and no PFM zones indicating that the human-induced disturbance has not reached critical ecological thresholds to affect birds’ species diversity. It can be deduced that PFM investment is leading to improved forest management. Resume Les communautes aviaires composees d'especes specialistes d'habitats particuliers soufrent de pertes considerables d'especes en raison de perturbations (Ecol. Monogr. 41, 1971, 207–233). La Gestion participative des forets (GPF) vise a garantir l'appropriation et le soutien locaux de la conservation des forets. Menee dans la foret d’Arabuko-Sokoke, cette etude a voulu determiner si les oiseaux forestiers et la qualite de la foret dans des endroits concernes par une GPF etaient significativement mieux que dans des zones qui ne le sont pas. Les donnees sur la qualite de la foret ont ete collectees dans des zones avec et sans GPF de la foret mixte (FM) et de la foret a Cynometra (FC). On a utilise une approche par parcelles pour recolter des donnees sur la vegetation le long de transects d'un kilometre espaces entre eux d'un kilometre, ce qui representait au total 20 transects et 200 parcelles dans chaque zone etudiee. Les donnees sur les oiseaux ont ete collectees sur des points de comptage de 10 min situes le long de 88 transects d'un kilometre de long espaces d'un kilometre, en echantillonnant des parcelles de 30 m de rayon tous les 100 m. Les donnees furent collectees en 2008 et 2009. Les resultats montrent que les mesures de qualite forestiere faites en zones GPF sont superieures a celles de zones non GPF qui presentaient des chiffres superieurs de perturbation forestiere. Les resultats ne montrent pas de differences statistiques des indices de diversite des oiseaux entre zones GPF et non GPF, ce qui indique que la perturbation n'a pas atteint les seuils critiques qui pourraient affecter la diversite des especes d'oiseaux. On peut en deduire que l'investissement dans une GPF conduit a une amelioration de la gestion forestiere.

SummaryImportant Bird Areas (IBAs) form a network of priority sites that are critical for the conservation of birds and biodiversity. A standard framework for monitoring IBAs is being implemented by the BirdLife Partnership globally. Scores are assigned on a simple ranked scale for state (condition), pressure (threats) and response (conservation action) at each site, from which IBA indices can be calculated. In Kenya, this scoring system was applied retrospectively using information in the national IBA directory (1999) and subsequent status reports (2004 and 2005). IBA indices for 36 IBAs show that their average condition deteriorated between 1999 and 2005, with the mean state score being between ‘unfavourable’ and ‘near favourable’. Pressures on IBAs showed a slight decline in intensity, especially from 2004 to 2005, coincident with an improvement in management that was reflected in increasing response scores. Compared to unprotected IBAs, officially protected sites had substantially greater conservation responses underway, were subject to marginally lower pressures and tended to be in slightly better condition. Other disaggregations of the data allow comparisons to be made for sites in different habitats, of different size, and managed by different agencies. This national example for Kenya suggests that the BirdLife IBA monitoring framework provides a simple but effective way of tracking trends in the state of IBAs, the pressures upon them, and the responses in place. The system is sensitive enough to detect differences between sites and over time, but simple enough to be implemented with little training and without sophisticated technology. The results provide vital information for managers of individual protected areas, management agencies responsible for suites of sites, and national governments, and can be used to track progress in tackling the global biodiversity crisis.

Resume: La biodiversite est confrontee a une grave crise d'extinction avec des pertes d'especes qui atteignent des niveaux trois fois plus importants que les moyennes estimees sur les temps geologiques. Cependant, ni la biodiversite, ni les menaces ne sont distribuees de maniere aleatoire sur la planete et il est donc extremement important de bien definir les objectifs et les priorites pour entreprendre des actions de conservation destinees a preserver au mieux la biodiversite. De facon plus generale, les priorites peuvent etre etablies en considerant les caracteres de vulnerabilite et irremplacabilite a partir desquels les ‘hotspots' (ou centres nevralgiques) de la biodiversite et les ‘regions naturelles a biodiversite elevee' ont ete delimites. Une nouvelle estimation recente de ces aspects a reconnu 34 ‘hotspots' et cinq ‘regions naturelles a forte biodiversite' dans le monde dont, neuf et deux sont respectivement distribues en Afrique. Nous procedons ici a une estimation des priorites de conservation pour les oiseaux et nous montrons qu'elles sont elevees. Cependant, ces estimations generales ne servent pas la conservation sur le terrain. Pour etablir les objectifs de la conservation, il nous faut un systeme accepte et gere le plus pres possible du terrain mais conformement aux standards internationaux, afin d'estimer la biodiversite a de multiples echelles de l'organisation ecologique. Le meilleur niveau auquel nous disposons generalement de donnees completes est situee au rang de l'espece ou nous pouvons appliquer la Liste Rouge de l'UICN pour determiner les objectifs de la conservation. Nous verifions dans quelle mesure les niveaux de menace qui pesent sur les oiseaux refletent ceux auxquels sont soumis d'autres taxons et montrons que les oiseaux representent l'un des groupes taxinomiques les moins menaces. La plupart des especes menacees, et cela quelque soit le groupe taxinomique retenu, sont mieux conservees a travers un reseau de parcs et de reserves proteges et nous pouvons donc prendre en consideration les donnees relatives a leur distribution pour identifier les «Zones d'Importance pour la Biodiversite» (ZIB) qui seront les objectifs de la conservation au niveau du site. Il s'agit d'un derive du concept des «Zones d'Importance pour la Conservation des Oiseaux» (ZICO) qui a deja ete retenu sur l'ensemble du continent africain. A partir des donnees provenant d'Afrique de l'Est et de Madagascar, la plupart des especes des groupes non aviens semblent etre representees dans les ZICO meme si de nombreux autres sites peuvent egalement etre identifies pour d'autres taxons. Alors que la protection des sites est primordiale pour la conservation de la biodiversite, elle ne sera satisfaisante qu'a condition que les processus ecologiques permettant le maintien de ces sites avec ses especes soient maintenus, jusqu'a envisager des interventions sur l'environnement en considerant des ‘corridors' de conservation de la biodiversite, si necessaires. Les ornithologues africains peuvent participer au processus d'identification des objectifs de la conservation en incitant leurs collegues dans autres disciples de la zoologie et de la botanique a compiler des donnees obtenues selon des methodologies comparables ou encore en participant directement aux etudes portant sur d'autres groupes taxinomiques mais surtout et avant tout en maintenant la qualite et le niveau des donnees ornithologiques pour le continent. Abstract: Biodiversity is facing an extinction crisis, with rates of species loss three orders of magnitude higher than average throughout geological history. However, neither biodiversity nor threats are randomly distributed around the planet, and so it is extremely important to target and prioritize conservation activities to make them as effective as possible in preserving biodiversity. At a global scale, priorities can be set by considering a framework of irreplaceability and vulnerability, from which biodiversity ‘hotspots' and ‘high-biodiversity wilderness areas' can be derived. Recent re-evaluation of these reveals that nine of the world's 34 hotspots and two of five high biodiversity wilderness areas lie in Africa. We assess the extent to which these conservation priorities are also priorities for bird conservation, and show that it is high. However, these global assessments do not inform conservation on the ground. For establishment of conservation targets, we require a system, driven and owned as close to the ground as possible, but following global standards, which assesses biodiversity at multiple scales of ecological organization. The finest scale at which comprehensive data are generally available is the level of the species, where we can use the IUCN Red List to determine targets for conservation. We ask how well levels of threat in birds reflect those in other taxa, and show that birds are one of the least threatened taxonomic groups. Regardless of taxon, most threatened species are best conserved through protecting areas, and so we can use information regarding their distributions to identify Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) as targets for site scale conservation. This builds from the concept of Important Bird Areas (IBAs), already applied across Africa. Based on data from East Africa and Madagascar, most species in non-bird groups appear to be represented in IBAs, although numerous additional sites can also be identified for other taxa. While the protection of sites is essential for biodiversity conservation, it will not be sufficient unless we maintain the ecological processes that allow these sites and species to persist, for which landscape interventions through biodiversity conservation ‘corridors' are necessary. African ornithologists can contribute to the process of identifying conservation targets by inspiring colleagues from other zoological and botanical disciplines to compile data in similarly comprehensive ways, by contributing directly to studies of other taxa, and above all by maintaining the flow of high quality ornithological data for the continent. Ostrich 2007, 78(2): 115–126

The need for effective global monitoring of biodiversity is clearer than ever, but our measurements remain patchy and inadequate. In the biodiversity-rich tropics, a central problem is the sustainability of monitoring schemes. Locally-based, participatory approaches show promise in overcoming this problem, but may not contribute effectively to monitoring at larger scales. BirdLife International’s framework for monitoring Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Africa is designed to be simple, robust and locally-grounded, but to produce scaleable results that can be compiled into national or regional indices. Focusing on key sites for bird conservation, identified according to standard criteria, the framework institutionalises monitoring in site management authorities and Site Support Groups (community-based organisations of local people working for conservation and sustainable development). A small, central monitoring unit co-ordinates the programme nationally, compiles, analyses and manages data, and provides feedback. ‘Basic’ monitoring (taking place at all sites) involves scoring of state, pressure and response trends using site information submitted on simple forms. ‘Detailed’ monitoring (taking place at a selected sub-set of sites) involves more intensive measurement of particular variables that relate to site management targets. IBA monitoring is now underway in at least 10 African countries, with implementation of the framework most advanced (thanks to a pilot project) in Kenya. The 2004 IBA monitoring report for Kenya provides extensive information on individual IBAs, plus indices for national trends in state, pressure and response, based on data from 49 out of 60 sites. The experience in Kenya shows that institutionalisation is vital, but takes considerable time and effort; that adequate co-ordination (including timely feedback) is key; and that participatory monitoring has many valuable benefits beyond the data collected. Further work is being undertaken to refine the process, improve its scientific underpinning, and strengthen the feedback loop from data and analysis to action on the ground.

Bridging the divide between pure and practical science is an age-old challenge in all disciplines, but in biodiversity conservation at least, the prospect of better integration between science, policy and practice is an increasingly realistic one. On 21 December 2010, the United Nations 65th General Assembly agreed to establish an Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), to tighten the interface between academia and application in the field of nature conservation (Mooney & Mace, 2009; see http://www.ipbes.net). While the mechanisms by which IPBES operates have yet to be finalized, and while vigilance will be essential to ensure that the platform builds from existing initiatives rather than duplicating efforts and spreading scarce resources even more thinly, the potential for guiding science towards tackling the most pressing questions while infusing cutting-edge research into policy and practice is invigorating. In this issue, Beresford et al. (2010) provide a powerful example of the value of such an interface between science, policy and practice. On the one hand, their analysis of the coverage of threatened African bird distributions by protected areas advances pure biodiversity science in a number of important ways. On the other, it stands to inform a number of conservation applications in Africa and beyond. Here, we highlight four of the most important of these directions and implications.

Matiku, P.M., Bennun, L.A. & Nemeth, E. 2000. Distribution and population size of the threatened East Coast Akalat in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 282–285. The East Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis is one of six globally threatened bird species that occur in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, the largest remnant of forest on the East African coast. The akalat has been little studied but appears to have a patchy distribution both between and within forests. From October 1995 to February 1996 we studied the akalat's status in Arabuko-Sokoke, carrying out transect counts and plot-based surveys to determine its distribution and population size. Playback of calls was used to stimulate the bird to reveal its presence. The akalat was present in two of the forest's main vegetation types, Cynometm woodland and Mixed forest. It was absent from the more open Brachystegia woodland, and from low-canopied intermediate Cynometra and Cynometra thicket. In Cynometra woodland, the akalats were evenl...

"This study examines the impact of participatory forest management (PFM) on forest-adjacent household livelihoods in the Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenya. It compares the impacts on households near PFM forests (PFM zones) with those near forests with no participatory management (non-PFM zones). The study questions were: does conservation of the Arabuko-Sokoke forest result in net household incomes?; does PFM increase net household benefits?; and are household benefits uniformly distributed within the 5 km PFM intervention zone? The hypotheses tested were: forest conservation benefits exceed forest conservation costs; PFM zones have higher household benefits than non-PFM zones; and benefits and costs reduce with distance from forest edge. In the year 2009, we collected data on household benefits and costs in PFM and non-PFM zones. Data were collected along 10 km transects at 1 km intervals, sampling 600 households up to 5 km away from the forest. The results show varied household dependence on the Arabuko-Sokoke forest. The forest benefits exceed costs in PFM zones but the forest is a cost in non-PFM zones, and costs and benefits reduce with distance from forest edge. The study concludes that, though not cheap, PFM is a tool that can help the Arabuko-Sokoke forest win the support of the adjacent local communities."

Site conservation is among the most effective means to reduce global biodiversity loss. Therefore, it is critical to identify those sites where unique biodiversity must be conserved immediately. To this end, the concept of key biodiversity areas (KBAs) has been developed, seeking to identify and, ultimately, ensure that networks of globally important sites are safeguarded. This methodology builds up from the identification of species conservation targets (through the IUCN Red List) and nests within larger-scale conservation approaches. Sites are selected using standardized, globally applicable, threshold-based criteria, driven by the distribution and population of species that require site-level conservation. The criteria address the two key issues for setting site conservation priorities: vulnerability and irreplaceability. We also propose quantitative thresholds for the identification of KBAs meeting each criterion, based on a review of existing approaches and ecological theory to date. However, these thresholds require extensive testing, especially in aquatic systems.