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The Central American Isthmus has had profound effects on the evolution and distribution of larger marine organisms, but the impacts on meiobenthic animals have received little attention. Tardigrade...

One of the largest inventories of tardigrades ever conducted occurred from 2000–2010 in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA. Over 16,000 specimens were catalogued, 85 species were identified, 11 species new to science were described, and 16 other possible new species await further study. More than 20 papers have resulted from the GSMNP tardigrade inventory, making the Smokies the most thoroughly studied area in North America for tardigrades. Several species lists have been published over this 20-year period, but many taxonomic revisions and new identifications have led to significant changes to the list. Biogeographical studies citing species records from earlier studies could yield serious errors. Here we update the species list from the Smokies to accommodate the many recent changes in tardigrade taxonomy, we re-analyze some species in light of delineations of cryptic species groups that have occurred recently via integrative taxonomy, and we provide a table of all synonyms that have been used in previous publications. We also make available, for the first time, the Smokies tardigrade database, complete with all locations, elevations, and substrates.

1. Leopards are often translocated away from where they are caught as non‐lethal human‐wildlife conflict mitigation. It is alleged that leopards fail to settle where they are translocated to, owing to territoriality. We address the need to publish more accounts of successful repatriation of leopards, but also include novel applications aimed at orphans and confiscated leopards. 2. We satellite collared 16 leopards which included a mixture of relocated and translocated leopards, of which the latter included conventional damage causing animals (DCAs, viz ‘problem animals’), orphans and confiscations. We determined standard home‐range metrics and assessed home‐range stabilization as a means of determining site fidelity. Premature mortality and site infidelity, that is homing back to origins, were considered failures. We looked at range stabilization by examining successive monthly ranges against that of the preceding month, that is utilization distribution overlap indices (UDOIs). 3. Relocations turned out to be residents (˜3 km, n = 3), while they were immune to intervention, while translocations resulted in 50% success (n = 12), which were invariably confiscated adults of unknown origin, and simulations of natal dispersals of orphans (˜25 km, n = 3). DCAs never settled where released (˜90 km, n = 5). Resident leopards showed high monthly UDOIs, and for those translocated a minimum of 0.15 was benchmarked to suggest range stability, which also reflected large spatial ranging. 4. Success in home‐range establishment was associated with landscapes which were unsaturated by other leopards, but anthropogenic threats still persisted, such that survival after a year was ˜45%, but was not different to the normal background mortality of areas outside protected areas in the country. Operations are costly, particularly that to do with veterinary treatment, immobilization, collars and temporary keeping, but such costs can be carried by public interest groups. 5. All adults (>3 years) of known origin should be relocated (transported distance home‐range diameter), while heeding ecological and genetic considerations, and not exceeding ˜400 km. Other non‐lethal mitigation should however be considered before translocation of leopards is contemplated. These findings can be applicable to solitary felids with a similar social organization.

The cosmopolitan echiniscid genus Hypechiniscus contains exclusively rare species. In this contribution, by combining statistical morphometry and molecular phylogeny, we present qualitative and quantitative aspects of Hypechiniscus diversity, which remained hidden under the two purportedly cosmopolitan species: H. gladiator and H. exarmatus. A neotype is designated for H. gladiator from Creag Meagaidh (Scotland), and an informal re-description is provided for H. exarmatus based on animals from Creag Meagaidh and the Isle of Skye (Inner Hebrides). Subspecies/forms of H. gladiator are suppressed due to the high developmental variability of the cirrus dorsalis. At the same time, four species of the genus are described: H. daedalus sp. nov. from Roan Mountain and the Great Smoky Mountains (Southern Appalachian Mountains, USA), H. flavus sp. nov. and H. geminus sp. nov. from the Yatsugatake Mountains (Honshu, Japan), and H. cataractus sp. nov. from the Malay Archipelago (Borneo and the Moluccas). Dorsal and ventral sculpturing, together with morphometric traits, are shown to be the key characters that allow for the phenotypic discrimination of species within the genus. Furthermore, the morphology of Hypechiniscus is discussed and compared to that of the most similar genera, Pseudechiniscus and Stellariscus. Finally, a diagnostic key to all recognized Hypechiniscus species is provided.

Computer aided sperm analysis systems allow detailed examination of sperm motility and morphology variables, which are important for the understanding of the spermatology of a species and the development of assisted reproductive techniques. Cetacean biology is too complex to study in the wild and data from captive individuals provide an important alternative for the conservation of these charismatic animals. The present study evaluates ejaculate and sperm characteristics, including sperm motility, kinematic variables and quantitative sperm morphology and ultrastructure, of consecutive ejaculates from Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Sperm concentrations and total and progressive motilities were greater in the second than the first ejaculate, with all ejaculates being of very high quality (6.9-1127 × 10

Based on the original species descriptions, a review of the genus Paramacrobiotus was conducted. We divided the genus into two subgenera, Microplacoidus subgen. nov. and Paramacrobiotus subgen. nov., based on the presence or absence of a microplacoid, and characterized species within the genus based on seven different types of eggs. In a moss sample collected in Ecuador, Paramacrobiotus (Paramacrobiotus) spinosus sp. nov., was found. The new species differs from all species of the subgenus Parama crobiotus by the presence of richtersi type eggs and from other species by morphometric characters. Additionally, in the Ecuadorian material we found P. (Microplacoidus) magdalenae comb. nov., which is the first record of this species in Ecuador, and we provide the full set of measurements for this species, not included in the original description. An additional new record is P. (M.) alekseevi comb. nov. found in Vietnam for the first time. After examining microscope slides from the Iharos' collection deposited in the Hungarian Natural History Museum, we prepared re-descriptions of P. (P.) csotiensis comb nov., P. (M.) submorulatus comb. nov. and P. (M.) wauensis comb. nov. Based on the morphological and morphometric characters of adults and eggs, we developed a diagnostic key to the genus Paramacrobiotus.

Homeotherms and many poikilotherms display a positive relationship between body size and latitude, but this has rarely been investigated in microscopic animals. We analysed all published records of marine Tardigrada to address whether microscopic marine invertebrates have similar ecogeographical patterns to macroscopic animals. The data were analysed using spatially explicit generalized least squares models and linear models. We looked for latitudinal patterns in body size and species richness, testing for sampling bias and phylogenetic constraints. No latitudinal pattern was detected for species richness, and sampling bias was the strongest correlate of species richness. A hump-shaped increase in median body size with latitude was found, and the effect remained significant for the Northern Hemisphere but not for the Southern. The most significant effect supporting the latitudinal gradient was on minimum body size, with smaller species disappearing at higher latitudes. Our results suggest that biogeographical signals were observed for body size, albeit difficult to detect in poorly studied groups because of swamping from biased sampling effort and from low sample size. We did not find a significant correlation with the latitudinal pattern of body size and ecologically relevant net primary productivity.

A major inventory of tardigrades in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park was conducted and we compared tardigrade species composition in moss and lichen samples and analysed environmental correlates of tardigrade community structure. We also compared these tardigrades with those collected from soil. The basic dataset from tree mosses and lichens consisted of 336 samples, 9200 individuals and 43 species. The supplemental dataset from rock mosses and lichens consisted of 29 samples, 811 individuals, and 41 species. Collectively, there were 57 species present in mosses and lichens. Eleven species were found uniquely on rock habitats. Two-way ANOVAs for various community metrics showed no significant differences between substrate (moss versus lichen) or height (ground level versus breast height); however, there were significant differences between ATBI plots. Tardigrade communities were not significantly different between mosses and lichens, but soil tardigrade communities were quite distinct from these moss/lichen communities. We analysed the impact of 17 environmental variables on community structure using partition tree analyses. SOx deposition explained most of the variation in species richness and evenness in moss tardigrades. Forest disturbance regime had the greatest impact on abundance in lichen tardigrades. Other environmental factors influencing community structure are discussed.

Batillipes pennaki has been considered a common and a cosmopolitan marine tardigrade species. However, the original diagnosis of this species is very incomplete, and consequently there is a high probability of incorrect records. Therefore, a comparative analysis of quantitative and qualitative morphological characters among eight different populations from the Atlantic basin was done in this study to investigate if B. pennaki is a complex of similar species, each with a restricted distribution range. The result of discriminant analyses showed clear morphometric differences between populations that were arranged into three main groups, distinguishing Western Atlantic populations, Eastern Atlantic populations and a Mediterranean population. Furthermore, the result of analyses of morphological structures revealed peculiarities of some traits with taxonomic relevance, such as leg IV sensory organs and primary clavae, consistent with the clusters revealed by quantitative data, allowing us to distinguish three different pseudocryptic species and supporting the hypothesis that B. pennaki is a species complex. Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia - FCT; FEDER; CAPES info:eu-repo/semantics/acceptedVersion

Knowledge of global biodiversity is essential for a basic understanding of Earth's ecosystems and for the conservation of life. Although many estimates of species numbers have been attempted using various techniques, many smaller phyla remain poorly known without such estimates. For most of these it is unclear if they are species-poor or just poorly studied. The phylum Tardigrada is one of these phyla. Specialists have created a regularly updated checklist for the known tardigrade species, which as of 15 July 2013 listed 1190 taxa (species and subspecies). Of these, 1008 are limnoterrestrial and 182 are marine. These were the most up-to-date data at the time of our analysis. As species accumulation curves show little sign of levelling out, they do not provide a useful tool for estimating global tardigrade diversity from existing species numbers. A new technique has recently been developed that uses the more complete knowledge of higher taxonomic levels to estimate the asymptotic number of species. We applied this technique to limnoterrestrial and marine tardigrades. We estimate that the global total for limnoterrestrial tardigrades is 1145 (upper 95% CI = 2101), and the global total for marine tardigrades is 936 (upper 95% CI = 1803). This yields 87% completeness for our knowledge of limnoterrestrial tardigrades, and only 19% completeness for our knowledge of marine tardigrades. Thus, although many more marine species remain to be discovered, it appears that tardigrades are both poorly studied and relatively species poor.

Although being an important conservation tool in Africa, trophy hunting is known to influence risk perception in wildlife species, thus affecting the behaviour and fitness of most targeted species. We studied the effects of trophy hunting on the flight behaviour of impala (Aepyceros melampus), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable (Hippotragus niger) in two closed ecosystems, Cawston Ranch (hunting area) and Stanley and Livingstone Private Game Reserve (tourist area), western Zimbabwe. Using standardized field procedures, we assessed the flight behavioural responses of the three species in two seasons: non-hunting (December–March) and hunting (April–November) between March 2013 and November 2014. We tested the effect of habitat, group size, sex, season, start distance and alert distance on flight initiation distance using linear mixed models. Habitat, group size sex and alert distance did not have any effect on flight initiation distance for the three species. The three species were more alert and displayed longer flight initiation distances in the hunting area compared with the tourist area. Flight initiation distances for the three species were higher during the hunting season for the hunting area and low during the non-hunting season. Flight distances of the three species did not differ between the hunting area and the tourist area. We concluded that trophy hunting increased perceived risk of wild ungulates in closed hunting areas, whereas ungulates in non-hunting areas are less responsive and somehow habituated to human presence. Management plans should include minimum approach distances by tourists as well as establishing seasonal restrictions on special zones to promote species viability. Research aimed at integrating behavioural responses with physiological aspects of target species should be promoted to ensure that managers are able to deal with the behavioural trade-offs of trophy hunting at local and regional scale.

We provide a comprehensive list of all records of freshwater aquatic tardigrades from North Carolina. In addition, 24 samples of medium and coarse sand were taken from the Davidson River, Transylvania County, NC near the Bobby N. Setzer State Fish Hatchery in the Pisgah National Forest on April 26 and May 3, 2016. Approximately 1900 interstitial microinvertebrates were found with nematodes, oligochaetes, and tardigrades being the most abundant. Tardigrades were individually mounted on slides and identified to species when possible. Ten species were identified among the 344 tardigrades isolated. Of these, two were “accidentals” that normally occur in terrestrial habitats, and seven were previously known from North Carolina. Dactylobiotus haplonyx was a new North American record. This is a rare species, and we compare our specimens with previously published accounts.

Marine tardigrades are very poorly known and up to now only c. 200 taxa have been reported around the world (mostly from European coasts). In a marine algae sample, collected on the coast of Fuerteventura island (Atlantic Ocean, Canary Islands), six specimens of three marine Arthrotardigrada species were found: Archechiniscusminutus Grimaldi de Zio & D’Addabbo Gallo, 1987, Styraconyx craticulus (Pollock, 1983) and Styraconyx sargassi Thulin, 1942. This is the third record of marine tardigrades from the Canary Islands. In this paper we also list all heterotardigrades known from marine environments around Africa.Keywords: Archechiniscidae, Archechiniscus minutus , Stygarctidae, Styraconyx craticulus, Styraconyx sargasi, Tardigrada

This is the first survey of subtidal marine tardigrades from the Bahamas, and we compare our results with earlier studies of Bahamian intertidal habitats. In 2011 and 2014 we collected 60 subtidal sand samples from Bimini, the Berry Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera, and the Exumas. We found 11 species only one of which, Dipodarctus subterraneus (Renaud-Debyser, 1959), had been found in the previous intertidal Bahamian collections. Thus, 10 species are new records for the Bahamas, and four of these are new to science. We describe two of the new species (Archechiniscus bahamensis sp. nov. and Anisonyches eleutherensis sp. nov.). Additional material is needed for a conclusive identification of the undescribed species of Batillipes and Florarctus. Based on examination of the holotype of Anisonyches diakidius Pollock, 1975, we redescribe this species and give an emended diagnosis of the genus and the species. We also provide new keys to the species in the genera Archechiniscus and Anisonyches. A Chao2 species richness estimate indicated that our sampling effort was extensive and probably recovered most common species. Correlations of abundance and diversity indices with regard to depth, distance to nearest shore, and sediment grain size were not significant.

The recent re-description of Paramacrobiotus Guidetti, Schill, Bertolani, Dandekar and Wolf, 2009 has inadvertently led to the description of an objective synonym within its subgenera nominal taxa. To resolve this issue, we have re-described both subgenera, and proposed a new substitute name for one subgenus, in line with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Additionally we have confirmed the placement of two recently published Paramacrobiotus species, not included in the last revision, within the respective subgenera established herein.

Incredibly disparate brain types are found in Metazoa, which raises the question of how this disparity evolved. Ecdysozoa includes representatives that exhibit ring-like brains-the Cycloneuralia-and representatives that exhibit ganglionic brains-the Panarthropoda (Euarthropoda, Onychophora, and Tardigrada). The evolutionary steps leading to these distinct brain types are unclear. Phylogenomic analyses suggest that the enigmatic Tardigrada is a closely related outgroup of a Euarthropoda + Onychophora clade; as such, the brains of tardigrades may provide insight into the evolution of ecdysozoan brains. Recently, evolutionarily salient questions have arisen regarding the composition of the tardigrade brain. To address these questions, we investigated brain anatomy in four tardigrade species-Hypsibius dujardini, Milnesium n. sp., Echiniscus n. sp., and Batillipes n. sp.-that together span Tardigrada. Our results suggest that general brain morphology is conserved across Tardigrada. Based on our results we present a hypothesis that proposes direct parallels between the tardigrade brain and the segmental trunk ganglia of the tardigrade ventral nervous system. In this hypothesis, brain neuropil nearly circumscribes the tardigrade foregut. We suggest that the tardigrade brain retains aspects of an ancestral cycloneuralian brain, while exhibiting ganglionic structure characteristic of euarthropods and onychophorans.

Just over 200 species of marine tardigrades have been described, and most of these have been collected in sand and other sediments. However, several species are known to associate with other invertebrates such as barnacles, bryozoans, and holothurians. It is possible that many epizoic tardigrade species remain to be discovered, since surveys of tardigrades on other potential animal hosts are very rare. Sponges, with extensive cavities, constant water flow, and protective secondary compounds, are known to harbour a highly diverse epizoic community, but there are no published studies indicating that marine tardigrades are among this community, and there is only one published record of tardigrades from freshwater sponges. We collected 30 samples of marine sponges, consisting of 12 species, from the central Bahamas. We processed these for tardigrades and other meiofauna using the freshwater shock technique. One unusual non-tardigrade in our samples was Loxosomella sp., an entoproct which is a known commensal on sponges. Here we also provide the first record of marine tardigrades associated with marine sponges. However, we found only one species, Archechiniscus bahamensis, which is the most common species occurring free-living in Bahamian subtidal sand. Therefore, we conclude that marine sponges, at least in the Bahamas, do host epizoic marine tardigrades, but they may not be a unique or important host for marine tardigrades.

An understanding of the habitat selection patterns by wild herbivores is critical for adaptive management, particularly towards ecosystem management and wildlife conservation in semi arid savanna ecosystems. We tested the following predictions: (i) surface water availability, habitat quality and human presence have a strong influence on the spatial distribution of wild herbivores in the dry season, (ii) habitat suitability for large herbivores would be higher compared to medium-sized herbivores in the dry season, and (iii) spatial extent of suitable habitats for wild herbivores will be different between years, i.e., 2006 and 2010, in Matetsi Safari Area, Zimbabwe. MaxEnt modeling was done to determine the habitat suitability of large herbivores and medium-sized herbivores. MaxEnt modeling of habitat suitability for large herbivores using the environmental variables was successful for the selected species in 2006 and 2010, except for elephant (Loxodonta africana) for the year 2010. Overall, large herbivores probability of occurrence was mostly influenced by distance from rivers. Distance from roads influenced much of the variability in the probability of occurrence of medium-sized herbivores. The overall predicted area for large and medium-sized herbivores was not different. Large herbivores may not necessarily utilize larger habitat patches over medium-sized herbivores due to the habitat homogenizing effect of water provisioning. Effect of surface water availability, proximity to riverine ecosystems and roads on habitat suitability of large and medium-sized herbivores in the dry season was highly variable thus could change from one year to another. We recommend adaptive management initiatives aimed at ensuring dynamic water supply in protected areas through temporal closure and or opening of water points to promote heterogeneity of wildlife habitats.

The selective nature of trophy hunting may cause changes in desirable phenotypic traits in harvested species. A decline in trophy size of preferred species may reduce hunting destination competitiveness thus compromising the sustainability of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. We explored the trophy quality and trends in harvesting patterns (i.e., 2004–2015) of Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), African elephant (Loxodonta africana), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable (Hippotragus niger) in Matetsi Safari Area, northwest Zimbabwe. We used long-term data on horn and tusk size, age, quota size allocation and offtake levels of selected species. To analyse the effect of year, area and age on the trophy size, quota size and offtake levels, we used linear mixed models. One sample t-test was used to compare observed trophy size with Safari Club International (SCI) minimum score. Trophy sizes for Cape buffalo and African elephant were below the SCI minimum score. Greater kudu trophy sizes were within the minimum score threshold whereas sable trophy sizes were above the SCI minimum score between 2004 and 2015. Age at harvest for Cape buffalo, kudu and sable increased whilst that of elephant remained constant between 2004 and 2015. Quota size allocated for buffalo and the corresponding offtake levels declined over time. Offtake levels of African elephant and Greater kudu declined whilst the quota size did not change between 2004 and 2015. The quota size for sable increased whilst the offtake levels fluctuated without changing for the period 2004–2015. The trophy size and harvesting patterns in these species pose a conservation and management dilemma on the sustainability of trophy hunting in this area. We recommend: (1) temporal and spatial rotational resting of hunting areas to create refuge to improve trophy quality and maintenance of genetic diversity, and (2) introduction of variable trophy fee pricing system based on trophy size.

Quantitative traits are an important part of tardigrade taxonomy for both heterotardigrades and eutardigrades. Because most quantitative traits vary as a function of body size, variation in body size complicates comparisons between individuals or populations. Thus, body size effects must be eliminated in morphometric analysis. Although ratios (size of character/body size) are often used to attempt this, they only work for the specific case of isometry (i.e. when a structure grows proportionally to body size). Ratios do not eliminate body size effects for allometric (disproportionate) growth. In eutardigrades, body size is highly correlated with the length of the rigid buccal tube, whereas body length (BL) is highly variable because of the flexibility of the cuticle and the orientation and coverslip pressure on the specimen. In heterotardigrades, BL is typically used to indicate body size because the thickened dorsal plates provide more rigidity and reliability in measurements. We measured 27 traits in 97 specimens of Paramacrobiotus tonollii (Eutardigrada) and 14 traits in 100 specimens of Echiniscus virginicus (Heterotardigrada) and found that many traits are allometric rather than isometric. Thorpe (1975, Biol J Linn Soc 7:27) provided a normalization technique to eliminate body size effects for any trait regardless of its relationship to body size. Using the data from P. tonollii, we show that Thorpe’s size normalization does successfully remove buccal tube length effects (body size effects), while pt indices generally do not. We also demonstrate the effectiveness of Thorpe’s normalization in species delineations of Macrobiotus recens and Macrobiotus hufelandi, two species that differ primarily in a few quantitative traits and overall body size in addition to the eggs. Based on these examples, we propose that the allometric exponent (b) and the Y-intercept (a*) of the regression of Thorpe normalized traits versus body size are valuable metrics in tardigrade systematics. Zusammenfassung Quantitative Merkmale sind ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Tardigraden-Taxonomie. Das gilt fur sowohl fűr Hetero- als auch fűr Eutardigraden. Weil die meisten quantitativen Merkmale als Funktion der Korpergrose variieren, erschweren Schwankungen der Korpergrose Vergleiche zwischen Individuen und Populationen. Daher mussen bei morphometrischen Analysen die Auswirkungen der variierenden Korpergrose eliminiert werden. Obwohl dafur oft Quotienten (Grose eines charakteristischen Merkmals/Korpergrose) benutzt werden, sind diese nur fűr den speziellen Fall von Isometrie, d.h. wenn eine Struktur proportional zur Korpergrose wachst, zu verwenden. Liegt allometrisches (uberproportionales) Wachstum vor, konnen solche Quotienten die Effekte der Korpergrose nicht ausschliesen. Bei Eutardigraden sind Korpergrose und Lange der starren Mundrohre in hohem Mase korreliert, wahrend die Korperlange aufgrund der flexiblen Cuticula sowie (in mikroskopischen Praparaten) aufgrund der Orientierung der Tiere und des unterschiedlichen Druckes durch das Deckglas sehr variabel ist. Bei Heterotardigraden wird die Korperlange benutzt, um die Korpergrose anzugeben, weil ihre verdickte dorsalen Cuticula-Platten steifer sind und entsprechende Messungen realistischer. Wir haben 27 Merkmale von 97 P. tonollii–(Eutardigrada) und 14 Merkmale von 100 E. virginicus–Individuen (Heterotardigrada) vermessen, von denen viele eher allometrisch als isometrisch wachsen. Thorpe (1975, Biol J Linn Soc 7:27) hat Normalisierungstechnik entwickelt, um Effekte der Korpergrose fur ein beliebiges Merkmal, ungeachtet seiner Beziehungen zur Korpergrose, auszuschliesen. Die Daten von P. tonollii zeigen, dass Thorpes Grosennormalisierung erfolgreich die Effekte der Lange der Mundrohre, i.e. der Korpergrose eliminiert, die pt-Indices aber nicht. Wir zeigen zudem, dass Thorpes Normalisierung effektiv genutzt werden kann, um Macrobiotus recens und Macrobiotus hufelandi voneinander abzugrenzen, zwei Arten, die sich vornehmlich in einigen wenigen Merkmalen sowie der Korpergrose und den Eiern voneinander unterscheiden. Aufgrund dieser Beispiele glauben wir, dass der allometrischen Exponent (b) and das Y-Intercept (a*) von Thorpes Regression ‘normalisierte Merkmale versus Korpergrose’ wertvolle Messgrosen fur die Tardigraden-Taxonomie sind.

South Africa has a rich flora which exhibits among the highest species density in the world, distributed across nine biomes that support an impressive diversity of animal life. However, a variety of human actions, invasion by alien species, natural disturbances and climate change collectively impact negatively on the great diversity of both plant and animal species. In situ conservation has long been practised, primarily in nature reserves, complemented by ex situ conservation in national botanic gardens, but in vitro plant conservation is not common. In the context of animal biodiversity conservation, the Wildlife Biological Resource Centre of the National Zoological Gardens utilises cryobanking as one of its major focuses and is now poised to expand as the repository for the cryoconservation of plant germplasm, particularly for indigenous recalcitrant-seeded and poor-seeding species. However, there are particular problems associated with successful germplasm cryostorage of such tropical and subtropical plants. As we see the science and application of cryobiology and cryoconservation as cross-cutting and transdisciplinary, we have entrained formal networking among scientists offering a range of specialisations aimed at a deeper understanding of common problems and practical outcomes to facilitate both plant and animal biobanking. The endeavours are aimed at elucidating the basis of both successes and failures in our efforts to attain optimal outcomes. With focus on best practices, standard operating procedures, validation and risk management for cryopreserved and cold-stored plant and animal material, our ultimate aim is to facilitate restoration by the safe reintroduction of indigenous species.

Milnesium, with its relatively short and wide buccal tube, is considered carnivorous. Species in this genus exhibit differences in buccal tube length, standard buccal tube width, and the buccal tube length/width ratio. To determine whether buccal tube size is correlated with the type of prey, ˜4000 specimens of various Milnesium species were examined. Among those with identifiable gut contents, ˜97% contained tardigrades, rotifers, or both, whereas only ˜3% contained nematodes or amoebas. In total, 189 females with guts containing only tardigrades, only rotifers, or both were analysed with general linear model multivariate analysis. Milnesium specimens containing only tardigrade remnants were larger and had longer and wider buccal tubes than those containing only rotifers. Those with only tardigrades in the gut also had a significantly lower buccal tube length to width ratio than those with only rotifers in the gut. Specimens with a mixed diet (rotifers and tardigrades) had intermediate values of buccal tube width and length, and these differed significantly from individuals containing rotifers or tardigrades only. Variation in buccal tube dimensions was linked with interspecific and age (size)-related factors, and differences in buccal tube dimensions associated with gut content remained significant, even when the analysis was controlled for the interspecific variation. No evidence of cannibalism was observed.

Trophy hunting has potential to support conservation financing and contribute towards rural development. We conducted a systematic review of the Zimbabwean trophy hunting perspective spanning from pre-1890 to 2015, by examining the following: (1) evolution of legal instruments, administration, and governance of trophy hunting, (2) significance of trophy hunting in conservation financing and rural development, and (3) key challenges, emerging issues in trophy hunting industry, and future interventions. Our review shows that (i) there has been a constant evolution in the policies related to trophy hunting and conservation in Zimbabwe as driven by local and international needs; (ii) trophy hunting providing incentives for wildlife conservation (e.g., law enforcement and habitat protection) and rural communities’ development. Emerging issues that may affect trophy hunting include illegal hunting, inadequate monitoring systems, and hunting bans. We conclude that trophy hunting is still relevant in wildlife conservation and rural communities’ development especially in developing economies where conservation financing is inadequate due to fiscal constraints. We recommend the promotion of net conservation benefits for positive conservation efforts and use of wildlife conservation credits for the opportunity costs associated with reducing trophy hunting off-take levels and promoting nonconsumptive wildlife use options.

A new eutardigrade, Doryphoribius smokiensis sp. nov., is described from soil and leaf litter samples collected in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in Tennessee, USA. The new species differs from two similar species (with two macroplacoids and a sculptured dorsal cuticle without gibbosities) by the presence of a very wide buccal tube (high buccal tube pt ratio: >20.0), absence of enlarged bases of claws, absence of eyes, and other morphological and morphometric characters.

This monograph describes the global records of marine water bears (Phylum Tardigrada). We provide a comprehensive list of marine tardigrades recorded from around the world, providing an up-to-date taxonomy and a complete bibliography accompanied by geographic co-ordinates, habitat, substrate and biogeographic comments. A link is provided to an on-line interactive map where all occurrences for each species are shown. In total we list 197 taxa and their 2240 records from 39 oceans and seas and 18 Major Fishing Areas (FAO). It is hoped this work will serve as a reference point and background for further zoogeographic and taxonomic studies on marine tardigrades.

Five marine arthrotardigrade species are recorded from Moorea, Society Islands, French Polynesia. Four were collected from coral sand; two, Dipodarctus anaholiensis Pollock, 1995 and Florarctus kwoni ChangRho, 1997, are new records for the region, and two, Halechiniscus perfectus Schulz, 1955 and Styraconyx kristenseni kristenseni Renaud-Mornant, 1981, have been previously reported. The fifth, a new species Styraconyx turbinarium sp. nov., is described and was collected from the drifting brown alga Turbinaria ornata. The new species is characterized by the presence of peduncles on all digits, an elongate primary clava, and the lateral cirrus A arising from a common pedestal and enveloped by a common membrane extending almost to the claval tip. The new species differs from the most similar species, Styraconyx tyrrhenus D'Addabbo Gallo, Morone De Luciade Zio Grimaldi, 1989, by having longer and differently shaped primary clavae which are elongated in the new species and club-shaped in S. tyrrhenus. By having a dorsal cuticle that is coarsely punctated but without folds or other ornamentations, the new species can be easily distinguished from S. craticulus (Pollock, 1983), a species with similar primary clavae, but with cuticular dorsal folds ornamented with a grid-like pattern.

An All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI) is underway in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP), with the goal of attempting to identify all species of life in the 2000 km2 park. The GSMNP is a hotbed of biodiversity, a U.N. Biosphere Reserve, and one of the largest protected, deciduous forests in the temperate world. We have completed two field seasons of work on the tardigrades in the park (2001–2002). As of July 2003, we have collected 420 samples from soil/decomposed leaf litter, lichens and mosses on trees, and stream sediment and periphyton. A few samples from caves, bird nests, and lichens/mosses on rocks were also collected. Samples were taken from within permanent plots established for the ATBI, representing the major biological communities of the GSMNP. Tardigrades were extracted from samples using centrifugation with Ludox AM™, individually mounted on microscope slides in Hoyer’s medium, and studied with phase contrast and DIC microscopy. We have examined 1524 slides from 60 samples as of July 2003. Prior to our work, only three species of tardigrades had been previously reported from a few samples in the park. We have now recorded 42 species, 8 of which we believe may be new to science. Species richness estimates were calculated using EstimateS 6 software for each of the major tardigrade habitats. Overall, we predict that there are 47 to 76 species in the GSMNP, with generally similar species richness in soil, lichen, moss, and stream habitats. Species richness estimates were also used to determine that the number of tardigrade species was greater in mosses at breast height on trees than in mosses at the base of trees.

The aim of this work was to investigate the minimum technical requirements for production of live offspring with somatic cell nuclear transfer. The experiment was performed in a field type laboratory without micromanipulators and carbon dioxide incubators. All long-term incubations were performed in the Submarine Incubation System (SIS) using various gas mixtures. The somatic cell culture was established from ear biopsy of a 9-year-old Holstein cow. Nuclear transfer was performed using the Handmade Cloning (HMC) technique. Zona-free oocytes were randomly bisected by hand with a disposable blade and a stereomicroscope. Cytoplast were selected using Hoechst staining and a fluorescent microscope. After a two-step fusion embryos were activated with calcium ionophore and dimethylaminopurine. Embryos were cultured in microwells (WOWs) in SOFaaci medium supplemented with 5% cattle serum. In two consecutive experiments, six blastocysts were produced from 52 reconstructed embryos. On Day 7, five blastocysts were transferred into synchronized recipients. All three recipients became pregnant but two pregnancies aborted at 6 and 7 months, respectively. A heifer calf weighing 27 kg was delivered at term by Caesarean section from the third pregnancy. The healthy 6-month-old heifer, the first cloned animal of Africa, is living evidence that nuclear transfer technology may be successfully used under basic laboratory conditions.

This is an identification guide to the 47 currently described genera of marine heterotardigrades. We provide clear definitions and illustrations of relevant anatomy and an easy to use dichotomous key. The aim of the present contribution is to enable more people to identify collected specimens of marine heterotardigrades, and hopefully, encourage more people to study this intriguing group of animals. The paper is divided into three parts. The first part gives a brief introduction to heterotardigrade morphology with special emphasis on taxonomically important characters. The second part is the actual key, which is accompanied by illustrations of both habitus and detailed foot morphology of the marine heterotardigrade genera. The third part provides up to date diagnoses of the orders, families, subfamilies and genera of marine heterotardigrades according to the most recent emendments. With the generic diagnoses, we provide a bibliography with selected literature that relates to each specific genus.

For many decades the genus Milnesium was thought to consist of a single, cosmopolitan species: Milnesium tardigradum Doyère, 1840. However, recently the genus has been re-evaluated, and numerous new species have been described. Currently, over twenty extant species and one fossil are recognised, and most appear to have very narrow geographic ranges. It is doubtful that M. tardigradum sensu stricto is truly cosmopolitan, but to evaluate this hypothesis, specimens previously identified as M. tardigradum must be re-examined using newly proposed taxonomic characters. As part of the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI) we collected Milnesium specimens from various locations in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP). Two Milnesium species have been evaluated, and one of them, Milnesium bohleberi sp. nov., is new to science. The new species is most similar to M. eurystomum but differs by shorter claws and a shorter, narrower, and more cylindrical buccal tube. The other Milnesium species, very rare in our collection, is morphologically indistinguishable from Milnesium granulatum Ramazzotti 1962, which was previously known only from Chile, Italy and Romania. Based on the recently revised description of M. tardigradum sensu stricto, this nominal species for the genus has not been found in the GSMNP samples.

Summary Two coral cays near La Parguera, Puerto Rico, have large, exposed coral ramparts composed almost entirely of loose pieces of elkhorn coral Acropora palmata (88% of horizontal transects, 98% of vertical transects). The total volume of elkhorn coral in the ramparts of the two cays was estimated at 3600 and 12 800 m3. The present volume of living elkhorn coral on these two reefs was estimated at 7 and 14 m3 and previous volumes at 11 000 and 34 900 m3. White-band disease was found on 8.5% of living elkhorn colonies. Lang’s boring sponge Cliona langae covered 10.8% of the total transect area, overgrowing both dead and living corals. White-band disease and coral-reef bleaching have drastically reduced the populations of elkhorn coral, thus, skeletal coral materials to replenish the plate ramparts are severely reduced, disrupting the process of forming and maintaining these coral reef ramparts. We predict that the next series of major storms striking these prominent cay ramparts will remove them. These disappearances will represent a quick, obvious and permanent consequence of global disturbances. Loss of cay ramparts will modify the environments on and around Atlantic coral reefs. Ramparts may be similarly lost from Indo-Pacific reefs. The lack of any other indisputable definitive indicators of long-term, major disturbances on coral reefs makes the distinct loss of coral-reef ramparts an important physical sign.

The Global Genome Biodiversity Network (GGBN) was formed in 2011 with the principal aim of making high-quality well-documented and vouchered collections that store DNA or tissue samples of biodiversity, discoverable for research through a networked community of biodiversity repositories. This is achieved through the GGBN Data Portal (http://data.ggbn.org), which links globally distributed databases and bridges the gap between biodiversity repositories, sequence databases and research results. Advances in DNA extraction techniques combined with next-generation sequencing technologies provide new tools for genome sequencing. Many ambitious genome sequencing projects with the potential to revolutionize biodiversity research consider access to adequate samples to be a major bottleneck in their workflow. This is linked not only to accelerating biodiversity loss and demands to improve conservation efforts but also to a lack of standardized methods for providing access to genomic samples. Biodiversity biobank-holding institutions urgently need to set a standard of collaboration towards excellence in collections stewardship, information access and sharing and responsible and ethical use of such collections. GGBN meets these needs by enabling and supporting accessibility and the efficient coordinated expansion of biodiversity biobanks worldwide.

Background The captive elephant population is not self-sustaining and with a limited number of breeding bulls, its genetic diversity is in decline. One way to overcome this is to import young and healthy animals from the wild. We introduce here a more sustainable alternative method - importation of semen from wild bulls without removing them from their natural habitat. Due to the logistics involved, the only practical option would be to transport cryopreserved sperm. Despite some early reports on African elephant semen cryopreservation, the utility of this new population management tool has not been evaluated. Methodology/Principal Findings Semen was collected by electroejaculation from 14 wild African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) bulls and cryopreserved using the directional freezing technique. Sperm treatments evaluated included the need for centrifugation, the use of hen or quail yolk, the concentration of glycerol (3%, 5% or 7%) in the extender, and maintenance of motility over time after thawing. Our results suggest that dilution in an extender containing hen yolk and 7% glycerol after centrifugation best preserved post-thaw sperm motility when compared to all other treatments (P≤0.012 for all). Using this approach we were able to achieve after thawing (mean ± SD) 54.6±3.9% motility, 85.3±2.4% acrosome integrity, and 86.8±4.6% normal morphology with no decrease in motility over 1 h incubation at 37°C. Sperm cryopreserved during this study has already lead to a pregnancy of a captive female elephant following artificial insemination. Conclusions/Significance With working techniques for artificial insemination and sperm cryopreservation of both African and Asian elephants in hand, population managers can now enrich captive or isolated wild elephant populations without removing valuable individuals from their natural habitat.

The first successful AI in an elephant was reported in 1998, using fresh semen. Since then almost 40 calves have been produced through AI in both Asian and African elephants worldwide. Following these successes, with the objective of enriching the captive population with genetic material from the wild, we evaluated the possibility of using frozen-thawed semen collected from wild bulls for AI in captivity. Semen, collected from a 36-yr-old wild African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) in South Africa was frozen using the directional freezing technique. This frozen-thawed semen was used for four inseminations over two consecutive days, two before and two after ovulation, in a 26-yr-old female African savanna elephant in Austria. Insemination dose of 1200 × 10(6) cells per AI with 61% motility resulted in pregnancy, which was confirmed through ultrasound examination 75, 110 and 141 days after the AI procedure. This represents the first successful AI using wild bull frozen-thawed semen in elephants. The incorporation of AI with frozen-thawed semen into the assisted reproduction toolbox opens the way to preserve and transport semen between distant individuals in captivity or, as was done in this study, between wild and captive populations, without the need to transport stressed or potentially disease-carrying animals or to remove animals from the wild. In addition, cryopreserved spermatozoa, in combination with AI, are useful methods to extend the reproductive lifespan of individuals beyond their biological lifespan and an important tool for genetic diversity management and phenotype selection in these endangered mammals.

A new species, Ramazzottius belubellus, is described from a single lichen sample collected in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in western North Carolina, U.S.A. The new species is easily distinguishable from all other members of the genus Ramazzottius by the presence of long dorsal, sharp triangular spines not arranged in transverse bands as opposed to small tubercles arranged in bands, or a thin reticulum, or a smooth cuticle present in all other described species of the genus. The new species could be confused with R. baumanni but differs from it by the presence of sharp triangular spines on the dorsal side of the body instead of flat, hemispherical tubercles.

Three new eutardigrades, Doryphoribius longistipes sp. nov., Doryphoribius minimus sp. nov. and Doryphoribius tergumrudis sp. nov., are described from stream periphyton, rock lichen and cave soil and leaf litter samples collected in the limestone-based Cades Cove area of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in eastern Tennessee, USA. Doryphoribius longistipes sp. nov. differs from other species mainly by the higher ratio of the secondary to the primary claw branches. Doryphoribius minimus sp. nov. differs from D. gibber, D. mariae and D. vietnamensis mainly by its smaller body size and different arrangement of dorsal gibbosities. Doryphoribius tergumrudis sp. nov. differs from D. evelinae by the absence of gibbosities and tubercles on legs I-III, the presence of lunulae and the absence of eyes. Additionally the three new species differ from other congeners by some other morphological and morphometric characters. Another species, Doryphoribius doryphorus Binda and Pilato, 1969, is a new record for Tennessee.

As part of the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (http://www.dlia.org), we are conducting a large-scale multihabitat inventory of tardigrades in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) in Tennessee and North Carolina, USA. Here we report our findings for the genus Macrobiotus (Eutardigrada, Macrobiotidae). Two new species, Macrobiotus martini sp. nov. and Macrobiotus halei sp. nov., are described from moss, lichen, soil and leaf litter samples. Macrobiotus martini sp. nov. differs from all other species of the Macrobiotus hufelandi group by having a very simple buccal armature without bands of teeth, very large elliptical cuticular pores, unique characteristics of the egg, and other morphometric characters. Macrobiotus halei sp. nov. differs from other species in the Macrobiotus richtersi group by having very small cuticular tubercles, well-developed macroplacoids, unique characteristics of the egg, and other morphometric characters. Seven additional Macrobiotus species have been identified in the GSMNP: M. harmsworthi Murray, 1907, M. hufelandi Schultze, 1834, M. islandicus Richters, 1904, M. montanus Murray, 1910, M. pallarii Maucci, 1954, M. recens Cuénot, 1932, and M. tonollii Ramazzotti, 1956. All of these except M. harmsworthi are new records for the national park. In addition, M. pallarii is a new record for North Carolina, M. islandicus is a new record for North Carolina and Tennessee, M. montanus is a new record for the eastern USA, and M. recens is a new record for the USA.

Four phenotypic attributes of male zebra finches were investigated to determine if observed variability predicts relatedness. Traits studied included three secondary sexual traits (bill colour, breast band and throat stripes), and one species-specific character (eye stripes). To score similarities, two series of pairs were created, with half of all pairs containing same-clutch siblings, the other half non-siblings (r≤1/8). Sibling were found to be more similar than non-siblings with respect to eye and throat stripe attributes, but not with regard to breast band size and bill colour. A human observer predicted which sets contained siblings with considerable accuracy. Results suggest that family resemblances for some visual traits are sufficiently great that they could be used by zebra finches in the process of phenotype matching. In birds, visual similarities may be more reliable indicators of relatedness than auditory similarities, due to the important role of learning in the acquisition of bird song.

This monograph describes the global records of marine water bears (Phylum Tardigrada). We provide a comprehensive list of marine tardigrades recorded from around the world, providing an up-to-date taxonomy and a complete bibliography accompanied by geographic co-ordinates, habitat, substrate and biogeographic comments. A link is provided to an on-line interactive map where all occurrences for each species are shown. In total we list 197 taxa and their 2240 records from 39 oceans and seas and 18 Major Fishing Areas (FAO). It is hoped this work will serve as a reference point and background for further zoogeographic and taxonomic studies on marine tardigrades.

Five marine arthrotardigrade species are recorded from Moorea, Society Islands, French Polynesia. Four were collected from coral sand; two, Dipodarctus anaholiensis Pollock, 1995 and Florarctus kwoni Chang & Rho, 1997, are new records for the region, and two, Halechiniscus perfectus Schulz, 1955 and Styraconyx kristenseni kristenseni Renaud-Mornant, 1981, have been previously reported. The fifth, a new species Styraconyx turbinarium sp. nov., is described and was collected from the drifting brown alga Turbinaria ornata. The new species is characterized by the presence of peduncles on all digits, an elongate primary clava, and the lateral cirrus A arising from a common pedestal and enveloped by a common membrane extending almost to the claval tip. The new species differs from the most similar species, Styraconyx tyrrhenus D'Addabbo Gallo, Morone De Lucia & de Zio Grimaldi, 1989, by having longer and differently shaped primary clavae which are elongated in the new species and club-shaped in S. tyrrhenus. By having a dorsal cuticle that is coarsely punctated but without folds or other ornamentations, the new species can be easily distinguished from S. craticulus (Pollock, 1983), a species with similar primary clavae, but with cuticular dorsal folds ornamented with a grid-like pattern.

As part of the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (http://www.dlia.org), an extensive survey of tardigrades has been conducted in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) in Tennessee and North Carolina, U.S.A., by Bartels and Nelson. Freshwater tardigrades include three species in the aquatic genus Thulinius (Eutardigrada, Isohypsibiidae). A new species, Thulinius romanoi, described from stream sediment, is distinguished from all other congeners by having a sculptured cuticle. In addition, the presence of Thulinius augusti (Murray, 1907) was verified by combined morphological and molecular analysis, and nine specimens of a third species, Thulinius cf. saltursus, were also found. Thulinius augusti is a new record for the United States. Thulinius saltursus (Schuster, Toftner & Grigarick, 1978) was previously recorded in California and Ohio, but our specimens vary slightly in morphology. The list of tardigrades from streams in the GSMNP was updated to a total of 44 species, 22 of which were predominantly or exclusively aquatic.

An online key and field guide is now freely available for the tardigrades of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP). This project is the culmination of a ten-year inventory of the tardigrades in the park as part of the All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (www.dlia.org). The key was produced using Lucid 3.5.2 (www.lucidcentral.org) developed by the Centre for Biological Information Technology at the University of Queensland, Australia.