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Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is among the major air pollutants in Europe posing severe hazard to environmental and human health. The concentrations of surface NO2 are measured by ground monitoring stations which are fairly limited in representation and distribution. While NO2 estimates from chemical transport models are realistic, their complexity makes them computationally intensive. Satellite observations from instruments such as TROPOMI provide high spatiotemporal distribution of NO2. However, these instruments capture NO2 density only along the tropospheric column and not on the surface. Exploiting the availability of ground station measurements and spatially continuous information from TROPOMI, this study estimates surface NO2 concentrations over Europe at 1km spatial resolution for 2019-2021 using XGBoost machine learning model. While ground measurements are used as target reference features, satellite observations such as tropospheric column density of NO2 (from TROPOMI), night light radiance (from VIIRS), NDVI (from MODIS) and modelled meteorological parameters such as planetary boundary layer height, wind velocity, temperature are used as input features to the model. We find an overall mean absolute error of 7.87µg/m3, mean bias of -3.13µg/m3 and spearman correlation of 0.61 during model validation. We found that the performance of the model is influenced by NO2 concentration levels and is most reliable for predictions at concentration levels

To estimate the effect of vegetation stress and changes in biogenic volatile organic compound (BVOC) emissions on urban ozone (O3) levels we perform a systematic, observation-based analysis of the relationship between formaldehyde (HCHO) mixing ratios, meteorological parameters, measurement-based drought indicators and O3 over the central European city of Vienna, Austria. In addition, numerical models SURface EXternalisée (SURFEX), Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) Vers.2.1 and 3 and MOdèle de Chimie A Grande Echelle (MOCAGE) are combined to estimate the soil moisture, the spatial distribution and drought response of isoprene emissions, and the resulting distribution of HCHO in the atmosphere. To analyse the effect of drought during spring and summer we contrast observations during dry and reference years. Our results show that the observed HCHO can be explained using the simulated isoprene emissions as well as observed and simulated vegetation drought responses. HCHO mixing ratios differ strongly between dry and reference seasons. Spring-time precipitation deficits facilitate reduced HCHO mixing ratios due to delayed and weakened plant growth. In consequence also O3 burdens are lowered due to reduced BVOC precursor emissions. These reductions occur despite radiation levels being higher than during the reference year, illustrating the strong potential of spring-time BVOC emissions to modulate urban O3 burdens. Conversely, during summer elevated O3 levels occur during local drought conditions. These are driven by advected isoprene originating from nearby forest areas, which are not affected by drought. Our results regarding elevated summer-time O3 burdens under vegetation heat and drought stress are in good agreement with previous work.

Heatwave and drought extremes can have significant impacts on vegetation, which can in turn lead to important effects on reactive trace gas fluxes at the land-atmosphere interface that can ultimately alter atmospheric composition. We present results from the EU-funded Sentinel EO-based Emission and Deposition Service (SEEDS) project, which aimed at developing upgrades to the existing Copernicus Atmospheric Monitoring Service (CAMS) component on European air quality. In this work, we used land surface modelling (SURFEX – Surface Externalisée) combined with data assimilation (Extended Kalman Filter - EKF) of satellite leaf area index (LAI) to deliver improved estimation of the land surface state. The land surface model is coupled with an online model for dry deposition and an offline model (MEGANv3.1) for biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) to estimate trace gas losses and emissions, respectively. This approach exploits methods at the forefront of land surface modelling (dynamic vegetation simulation and data assimilation) and combines them with the latest algorithms to estimate trace gas fluxes at the surface. We present findings from two extreme events in Europe: the 2018 drought and the 2019 June/July heat waves. SURFEX was forced using ECMWF meteorology at 0.1° × 0.1° resolution that captured both events. Both extreme events provoked strong responses in the models for dry deposition velocity and BVOC emissions. The 2018 drought began in spring and endured through summer, during which dry deposition velocities declined steadily beyond seasonal norms due to increased stomatal resistance forced by the vegetation response to drought. Over continental Europe, BVOCs initially increased in the early phase of the drought, but then sharply declined into July in the worst-affected regions in Germany, Denmark, and Poland. Meanwhile, BVOCs increased in Scandinavia relative to seasonal norms due to the warmer-than-average conditions. The first episode of severe heat in 2019 arrived in late June, which initially caused a large increase in BVOC emissions compared to seasonal norms. Then drought set in during July and despite a second large heat wave BVOC emissions were lower overall compared to seasonal norms. In fact, the European-wide BVOC emissions were higher in June compared to July due to the drought effects that commenced later in the heat wave cycle. This reverses the normal seasonal cycle in BVOC emissions, and drought impacts on vegetation were the primary driver behind this. Dry deposition velocities are reduced during both heat waves, but we see a larger decline in the second heat wave in July when drought conditions are more severe.Our findings suggest that these impacts on trace gas surface fluxes would have a strong effect on atmospheric composition, and on photochemical ozone formation. We, therefore, conclude that these effects likely played a contributory role to the ozone pollution episodes that occurred coincidentally in time with the heat wave events in both 2018 and 2019. The project aim within SEEDS is to eventually test the BVOC emissions and dry deposition velocities within a chemical transport model participating within the CAMS regional ensemble (MOCAGE) and to therefore evaluate the impact on ozone.

Marine species often exhibit genetic discontinuities concordant with biogeographic boundaries, frequently occurring due to changes in ocean circulation, bathymetry, coastline topography and temperature. Here we used 10,916 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to assess the concordance between population genomic differentiation and coastal biogeography in the fishery important snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) across southeastern Australia. Additionally, we investigated whether spatial scales of assessment and management of snapper align with evidence from population genomics. Across 488 snapper samples from 11 localities between the west coast of South Australia and the south coast of New South Wales, we detected genomic structure concordant with the region’s three biogeographic provinces. We also detected fine-scale genetic structuring relating to spatial variation in spawning and recruitment dynamics, as well as temporal stability in the genomic signal associated with two important spawning grounds. The current management boundaries in the region coincided with either the genetic breaks at bioregional boundaries or with localscale variation. Our study highlights the value of population genomic surveys in species with high dispersal potential for uncovering stock boundaries and demographic variation related to spawning and recruitment. It also illustrates the importance of marine biogeography in shaping population structure in commercial species with high dispersal potential.

Achieving a sustainable socioecological future now requires large-scale environmental repair across legislative borders. Yet, enabling large-scale conservation is complicated by policy-making processes that are disconnected from socioeconomic interests, multiple sources of knowledge, and differing applications of policy. We considered how a multidisciplinary approach to marine habitat restoration generated the scientific evidence base, community support, and funding needed to begin the restoration of a forgotten, functionally extinct shellfish reef ecosystem. The key actors came together as a multidisciplinary community of researchers, conservation practitioners, recreational fisher communities, and government bodies that collaborated across sectors to rediscover Australia's lost shellfish reefs and communicate the value of its restoration. Actions undertaken to build a case for large-scale marine restoration included synthesizing current knowledge on Australian shellfish reefs and their historical decline, using this history to tell a compelling story to spark public and political interest, integrating restoration into government policy, and rallying local support through community engagement. Clearly articulating the social, economic, and environmental business case for restoration led to state and national funding for reef restoration to meet diverse sustainability goals (e.g., enhanced biodiversity and fisheries productivity) and socioeconomic goals (e.g., job creation and recreational opportunities). A key lesson learned was the importance of aligning project goals with public and industry interests so that projects could address multiple political obligations. This process culminated in Australia's largest marine restoration initiative and shows that solutions for large-scale ecosystem repair can rapidly occur when socially valued science acts on political opportunities.Transformación de un Ecosistema Arrecifal Perdido en un Programa Nacional de Restauración Resumen Actualmente se requiere una reparación ambiental a gran escala que atraviese fronteras legislativas para lograr un futuro socio-ecológico sustentable. Aun así, habilitar la conservación a gran escala es complicado debido a los procesos de elaboración de políticas que están desconectadas de los intereses socio-económicos, las múltiples fuentes de conocimiento y las diferentes aplicaciones de las políticas. Consideramos cómo una estrategia multidisciplinaria para la restauración de hábitats marinos generó una base de evidencia científica, apoyo comunitario y el financiamiento necesario para así iniciar la restauración de un ecosistema arrecifal de conchas funcionalmente extinto. Los actores clave formaron una comunidad multidisciplinaria de investigadores, practicantes de la conservación, comunidades de pescadores recreativos y órganos gubernamentales que colaboró con varios sectores para redescubrir los arrecifes perdidos de Australia y comunicó el valor de su restauración. Las acciones realizadas para armar el caso para la restauración marina a gran escala incluyeron la síntesis del conocimiento actual sobre los arrecifes de conchas en Australia y su declinación histórica, el uso de esta historia para contar una narración convincente que active el interés público y político, la integración de la restauración a la política gubernamental y la movilización del apoyo local por medio de la participación comunitaria. Claramente, la articulación del caso del negocio social, económico y ambiental para la restauración llevó al financiamiento estatal y nacional para la restauración arrecifal a cumplir diversos objetivos socio-económicos (p. ej.: creación de empleos, oportunidades recreativas) y de restauración (p. ej.: una productividad realzada de la biodiversidad y las pesquerías). Una lección clave que aprendimos fue lo importante que es alinear los objetivos del proyecto con los intereses públicos y de la industria, de tal manera que los proyectos aborden las múltiples obligaciones políticas. Este proceso culminó con la iniciativa de restauración marina más grande en Australia y demuestra que las soluciones para la reparación de los ecosistemas a gran escala pueden ocurrir rápidamente cuando la ciencia con valor social actúa sobre las oportunidades políticas.

Drifting Fish Aggregating Devices (dFADs) are a major fishing mode for tropical tuna purse seine fisheries worldwide. However, the extent of dFAD use remains poorly understood. We present novel approaches for estimating annual dFAD deployments and number of dFADs monitored by individual vessels, using empirical data and robust estimation procedures. We leveraged observer and logbook data, combined with new dFAD tracking data from the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) purse seine fishery, the largest tuna fishery in the world, to evaluate trends in dFAD use across the entire WCPO between 2011 and 2019. Average estimates ranged between 20 000 and 40 000 deployments per year, depending on the methodology, with the total number of deployments appearing relatively stable over the last decade. The median number of active buoys monitored per vessel per day ranged from 45 to 75 depending on the year, well below the current management limit of 350. Our results contrast with other oceans, having fewer buoys monitored per vessel, a unique stable trend, but overall number of deployments two times higher than any other ocean. This study provides a basis for improved monitoring and management of dFAD use in the WCPO, with applicability for other regions.

In the city centre of Vienna, Austria ozone (maximum 8 hour mean) mda8 exceedances of the threshold value of 120 μg/m³ can occur from as early as March until September, which coincides with the main local vegetation season. Biogenic volatile organic compounds (bVOCs), which are mainly emitted by forests, but also other vegetation as agricultural field crops and are precursor substances to atmospheric formaldehyde (HCHO). Thereby they contribute to the production of ozone in and around the city. On the other hand, vegetated areas reduce the ozone concentration by uptake via stomatal and cuticular pathways and soil uptake.In this study the dependency of HCHO mixing ratios, obtained from path averaged MAX-DOAS UV retrievals over the Vienna city centre, on meteorological parameters (air temperature, global radiation, boundary layer height) and vegetation drought stress indicators are analysed, focusing on the difference between drought and non-drought conditions. Following indicators are used: standardized precipitation index (SPI), relative soil saturation from the Agricultural Risk Information System (ARIS), vapour pressure deficit and satellite-based photosynthetically active radiation anomaly (fAPAR) as well as solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF).A clear dependency of the HCHO on vegetation-related parameters and the area of origin of HCHO and its precursor substances is found. However, the strength of the relationship between the parameters changes depending on the vegetation status. The results of the observational HCHO analyses spanning 2017-2021 are compared with bVOCs estimates of the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN). The observed ozone concentrations are compared with the ozone mixing ratios and dry deposition rates calculated by the chemical transport model developed at Meteorological Synthesizing Centre-West within the European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP MSC-W model), which includes the Deposition of Ozone for Stomatal Exchange (DO3SE) model, to better understand timing and magnitudes of sources and sinks. Possible consequences for exceedances of the mda8 ozone target value in the study region are discussed.

Halogen halides emitted by volcanoes are known to rapidly convert within plumes into BrO while depleting ozone, as clearly shown by observations and models over the past 2 decades (e.g. review by Gutmann et al., 2018). So far, most of the modelling studies have focused on the plume processes occurring in the first few hours after the emission. The only study at the regional scale is that of Jourdain et al. (2016). They assessed the impact of volcanic halogens for a period of strong degassing of the Ambrym volcano, showing in particular its effect on the atmospheric oxidizing capacity and methane lifetime.A step further would be to quantify the impact of volcanic halogens at the global scale using global chemistry models. This type of model uses a horizontal resolution (greater than 50 km) that is much coarser than the plume size. This raises the issue of, whether at this resolution, it is possible to represent the chemistry occurring under high concentrations within the plume. To assess this, a sub-grid scale parameterization is proposed. It has been tested in the 1D version of MOCAGE global and regional chemistry transport model for a short eruption of Mt Etna on the 10th of May 2008. The results show that while using the subgrid-scale plume parameterization or not does change the timing of when the maximum BrO occurs but does not affect the predicted maximum concentration. The same finding is made when using a range of different settings in the parameterization regarding dilution of the plume with its environment. The 1D model results show a sensitivity of BrO formation to parameters other than the sub-grid scale effects: composition of the plume at the vent, injection height of the emissions, and time of the day when the eruption takes place.

A bespoke groundwater monitoring programme was designed to generate a database of pinoxaden and metabolite concentrations in shallow groundwater at agricultural locations across Europe. The data generated from this programme represent a higher tier refinement of modelled exposure estimates and provide realistic information on groundwater quality at vulnerable locations which will aid plant protection product (PPP) assessment in Europe in relation to Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009. The Regulatory GeoPEARL_3.3.3 model developed by RIVM was used to estimate the vulnerability of cereal growing regions to leaching of two pinoxaden metabolites across the entire EU at a 1 km2 level using 20 years of daily weather data (MARS, EU JRC). Seventy sites located within the upper 50th percentile of leaching vulnerability from this modelling exercise, crop density and shallow groundwater were selected for monitoring groundwater. Retrospective and prospective pinoxaden product applications at candidate sites were recorded and these data used to place sites in the distribution for Europe. The 70 sites all fulfil the site assessment criteria and have no confining layers which may prevent or delay leaching. All sites equipped with groundwater wells had a minimum of two pinoxaden applications in the preceding four years to cereal crops. A total of 1326 samples were analysed from up to 90 down hydraulic gradient wells at 70 locations between June 2015 and July 2018. Results indicate that pinoxaden and pinoxaden metabolites are very unlikely to reach shallow groundwater at concentrations greater than 0.1 μg/L for relevant metabolites, or 10 μg/L for non-relevant metabolites, respectively (Sanco/221/2000-rev.10). Over 38 months of groundwater monitoring the annual average and 90th percentile for pinoxaden or its metabolites never exceeded 0.1 μg/L and it is proposed that these data infer that exposure to these metabolites is minimal.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC) are emitted by trees. In the presence of NOx they can help to produce tropospheric ozone. During heat waves this can cause a critical additional stress for human wellbeing, especially in areas exhibiting high NOx concentrations. Heat wave intensity and frequency is expected to increase.To estimate the potential threat, we simulate BVOC emissions over the Vienna region during an extreme heat wave using the Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature (MEGAN) (Guenther et al. 2012) in its latest version 3. We adapted the model to directly ingest the files used and produced by the land surface model SURFEX8.1 (Surface Externalisée, in French) (Boone et al. 2017) and its preprocessors. In this poster we present our methodology and first results showing the spatial distribution and time series of selected BVOCs.The chosen heat wave covers 5 days during August 2015, with an average daily 2 m air temperature of 36.3 °C, and represents a significant event with a 15 year return period (of the period 1988-2017).The LAI and soil parameters field capacity and wilting point are taken from the physiographic fields derived from ECOCLIMAP, soil moisture and temperature from the prognostic SURFEX output fields calculated for urban and non-urban areas, the 2m air temperature from the diagnostic output fields of SURFEX.The meteorological forcing is used to create daily meteorology parameters and together with LAI maps run the canopy meteorology module. Further we use the soil emission activity module to calculate a soil temperature and soil moisture dependent isoprene soil emission activity factor. Using these datasets the emission activity factors are calculated. Finally, the emission activity factors are converted from 20 to 201 species and lumped according to the RACM2 mechanism. First results, show the strong dependence of isoprene emissions on incoming photosynthetically active radiation and LAI. In the course of theheat wave isoprene emissions decline, which correlates with the decline in soil water availability and consqequent decreased stomatal opening. Boone, A., Samuelsson, P., Gollvik, S., Napoly, A., Jarlan, L., Brun, E., & Decharme, B. (2017). The interactions between soil–biosphere–atmosphere land surface model with a multi-energy balance (ISBA-MEB) option in SURFEXv8 – Part 1: Model description. Geoscientific Model Development, 10(2), 843–872. Guenther, A. B., Jiang, X., Heald, C. L., Sakulyanontvittaya, T., Duhl, T., Emmons, L. K., & Wang, X. (2012). The Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature version 2.1 (MEGAN2.1): an extended and updated framework for modeling biogenic emissions. Geoscientific Model Development, 5(6), 1471–1492.

Climate change threatens to exacerbate existing problems in urban areas arising from the urban heat island. Furthermore, expansion of urban areas and rising urban populations will increase the numbers of people exposed to hazards in these vulnerable areas. We therefore urgently need study of these environments and in-depth assessment of potential climate adaptation measures.We present a study of heat wave impacts across the urban landscape of Vienna for different future development pathways and for both present and future climatic conditions. We have created two different urban development scenarios that estimate potential urban sprawl and optimized development concerning future building construction in Vienna and have built a digital representation of each within the Town Energy Balance (TEB) urban surface model. In addition, we select two heat waves of similar frequency of return representative for present and future conditions (following the RCP8.5 scenario) of the mid 21st century and use the Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF) to simulate both heat wave events. We then couple the two representations urban Vienna in TEB with the WRF heat wave simulations to estimate air temperature, surface temperatures and human thermal comfort during the heat waves. We then identify and apply a set of adaptation measures within TEB to try to identify potential solutions to the problems associated with the urban heat island.Global and regional climate change under the RCP8.5 scenario causes the future heat wave to be more severe showing an increase of daily maximum air temperature in Vienna by 7 K; the daily minimum air temperature will increase by 2-4 K. We find that changes caused by urban growth or densification mainly affect air temperature and human thermal comfort local to where new urbanisation takes place and does not occur significantly in the existing central districts.Exploring adaptation solutions, we find that a combination of near zero-energy standards and increasing albedo of building materials on the city scale accomplishes a maximum reduction of urban canyon temperature of 0.9 K for the minima and 0.2 K for the maxima. Local scale changes of different adaption measures show that insulation of buildings alone increases the maximum wall surface temperatures by more than 10 K or the maximum mean radiant temperature (MRT) in the canyon by 5 K. Therefore, additional adaptation to reduce MRT within the urban canyons like tree shade are needed to complement the proposed measures.This study concludes that the rising air temperatures expected by climate change puts an unprecedented heat burden on Viennese inhabitants, which cannot easily be reduced by measures concerning buildings within the city itself. Additionally, measures such as planting trees to provide shade, regional water sensitive planning and global reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in order to reduce temperature extremes are required.We are now actively seeking to apply this set of tools to a wider set of cases in order to try to find effective solutions to projected warming resulting from climate change in urban areas.

This paper provides an empirical case through which to examine how debates about ‘birthright-based’ national citizenship and residence-based local citizenship play out in the context of an indigenous emigrant population: Māori in Australia. Many Māori who are resident long-term or permanently in Australia are unable to participate in Australian federal or state elections because they are not Australian citizens. This disenfranchisement is only partially compensated by their ability to continue voting in New Zealand elections; data on the exercise by expatriate Māori of their external voting rights suggest that their levels of participation are even lower than those of other expatriate New Zealanders.This tension between territorial residence and formal membership as a basis for decision-making rights plays out in another way for expatriate Māori, in relation to tribal decision-making. Generally speaking, whakapapa (genealogical) descent from a common ancestor gives rise to a right to vote in triba...

In the early 1900s, and in spite of the principles of the White Australia policy, Australia was forced to treat Māori crossing the Tasman in largely the same way as Pākehā New Zealanders. This served, first, to encourage New Zealand to federate and, second, to maintain healthy trans-Tasman diplomatic relations. However, extending uninhibited rights of entry to Pacific Island (and Asian) New Zealanders long remained a bridge too far for Australia. This was a cause of increasing tension with New Zealand, which had embraced closer ties with the Pacific and had, from the 1960s, allowed the immigration of thousands of Pacific Islanders. As late as 1971, the Australian cabinet agreed that Pacific Islanders were too ‘unsophisticated’ and ‘unsuited’ to settle freely in Australia. The election of the Whitlam government in 1972, though, led to the abandonment of this and other final vestiges of the White Australia policy. However, in the four decades since, Australia has progressively curtailed the rights of New Ze...

The pricing of parking is a common tool used by governments to facilitate the efficient movement of traffic, raise revenue and influence travel behaviour. In January 2006, the Victorian Government introduced a ‘congestion levy’ on long-stay, off-street car parking spaces within inner Melbourne, as a means of reducing peak-hour traffic congestion. This study provides an overview of the congestion levy and examines how the levy was passed onto users in the period immediately following its introduction. Specifically, it asks the question do long stay parkers pay the Melbourne Congestion Levy since if they do not pay the levy it is unlikely to achieve the stated levy aims. The paper finds that between December 2005 and June 2008, early-bird parking prices in commercial off-street car parks increased in real terms by 11%–17% above their pre-levy level. This increase covered only 40%–60% of the total cost of the levy. Further data collected in 2009 suggests that between June 2008 and April 2009, early-bird parking prices dropped, such that by April 2009, early-bird parking prices may have increased by as little as 8% above December 2005 prices—representing just 30% of the full levy. Therefore, the study finds that although long-stay parking charges in commercial car parks have increased in real terms since the introduction of the levy, the scale of the increase suggests that some of the cost of the levy is being borne by short-stay users and the parking operators themselves. The paper also finds that across all off-street parking facilities within inner Melbourne, a majority of drivers have their parking fees paid for by their employers. These findings suggest that the way in which the levy is being implemented by parking providers is undermining the stated purpose of the levy and may be limiting its effectiveness in changing travel behaviour. The key recommendation of the paper is therefore to develop a closer link between the levy and its intended target in order to obtain the required policy outcomes.

Purpose The pricing of parking is a common tool used by governments to facilitate the efficient movement of traffic, raise revenue and, more recently, influence travel behaviour. An important and under-researched by-product of parking pricing schemes is the impact of these schemes on parking supply. Methodology/approach This chapter offers a review of prior research and literature, and explores: who pays the parking levy, the impact of the Congestion Levy on the provision of parking and an overview of the transport impacts of the levy. Findings The direction of the levy at parking operators and owners rather than the vehicle drivers does not provide a direct link between users and the levy and results in many parking providers not passing the levy onto commuters. The study of parking supply impact shows that, since the introduction of the levy, the supply of commercial off-street parking spaces has declined while the growth in private, non-residential, parking spaces has slowed. Over the same period, there has been a decrease in the number of parking spaces provided for long-stay parking (which attract the parking levy), and an increase in the number of spaces provided for other uses. Understanding these parking supply impacts are important, not only because a reduction in the number of long-stay car parking spaces is an objective of the levy, but also because any such reduction could magnify the travel behaviour impacts that may have occurred solely as a result of an increase in parking price. Investigation of the overall transport impacts of the levy indicate that the parking levy did have an impact on mode choice. However the extent of this impact was not clear due to a large number of associated changes in policy and economic conditions that took place at the same time as the levy. Practical implications The chapter shows that the parking levy was positive in its impact on transport use, however there were a number of improvements that could be made to the way the levy was implemented that could improve these. Interestingly, there have been a number of recent changes in the implementation of the levy that address some of these issues. Most importantly, following its own investigation into the impact of the levy, from January 2014 the cost of the levy was increased by 40% to $1,300 per annum, and its coverage extended (Victorian State Revenue Office, 2013). The impact of this change has not been considered in this research. Originality/value of paper The uniqueness of the chapter lies in its exploration of how increased prices of parking has influenced supply and how the levy, as a new form of congestion pricing, has influenced the supply of parking in the context of the case study of the Melbourne parking levy in Australia.

This article examines the participation of Australian-resident Māori in voting, first in their New Zealand homeland and, secondly, in Australia. It concludes with comments about the extent of their political disenfranchisement and lack of electoral participation, which I argue places Māori in an almost unique position amongst Australia’s ‘ethnic’ immigrant groups.

Although considerable research has been conducted into the economic benefits of various congestion pricing measures including parking taxes, the equity implications of such initiatives have received less attention. As the policy debate shifts from the theoretical benefits of congestion pricing to the acceptability issues associated with implementing such measures, however, concerns about the equity of various proposals increasingly are raised. This paper starts with an overview of a congestion levy introduced in 2006 on off-street parking spaces within the inner city of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The paper subsequently defines equity in the context of congestion pricing and reviews empirical findings on the equity issues associated with parking taxes. The paper then explores how equitable the Melbourne congestion levy is and whether the tax may, inadvertently, disadvantage certain groups. The analysis reported on in this paper found that a significant proportion of drivers who contributed to the congestion problem did not pay the congestion levy, or else had their parking costs, including the cost of the levy, paid for by their employers. These findings raised concerns about both horizontal and vertical equity.