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In agricultural settings, microbes and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) have the potential to be transferred across diverse environments and ecosystems. The consequences of these microbial transfers are unclear and understudied. On dairy farms, the storage of cow manure in manure pits and subsequent application to field soil as a fertilizer may facilitate the spread of the mammalian gut microbiome and its associated ARGs to the environment. To determine the extent of both taxonomic and resistance similarity during these transitions, we collected fresh manure, manure from pits, and field soil across 15 different dairy farms for three consecutive seasons. We used a combination of shotgun metagenomic sequencing and functional metagenomics to quantitatively interrogate taxonomic and ARG compositional variation on farms. We found that as the microbiome transitions from fresh dairy cow manure to manure pits, microbial taxonomic compositions and resistance profiles experience distinct restructuring, including decreases in alpha diversity and shifts in specific ARG abundances that potentially correspond to fresh manure going from a gut-structured community to an environment-structured community. Further, we did not find evidence of shared microbial community or a transfer of ARGs between manure and field soil microbiomes. Our results suggest that fresh manure experiences a compositional change in manure pits during storage and that the storage of manure in manure pits does not result in a depletion of ARGs. We did not find evidence of taxonomic or ARG restructuring of soil microbiota with the application of manure to field soils, as soil communities remained resilient to manure-induced perturbation. IMPORTANCE The addition of dairy cow manure—stored in manure pits—to field soil has the potential to introduce not only organic nutrients but also mammalian microbial communities and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) to soil communities. Using shotgun sequencing paired with functional metagenomics, we showed that microbial community composition changed between fresh manure and manure pit samples with a decrease in gut-associated pathobionts, while ARG abundance and diversity remained high. However, field soil communities were distinct from those in manure in both microbial taxonomic and ARG composition. These results broaden our understanding of the transfer of microbial communities in agricultural settings and suggest that field soil microbial communities are resilient against the deposition of ARGs or microbial communities from manure.

There is significant interest in biomass production ranging from government agencies to the private sector, both inside and outside of the traditional production agricultural setting. This interest has led to an increase in the development and production of biomass crops. Much of this effort has focused on specific segments of the process, and more specifically on the mechanics of these individual segments. From a review of scientific literature, it is seen that little effort has been put into identifying, classifying and preventing safety hazards in on-farm biomass production systems. This commentary describes the current status of the knowledge pertaining to health and safety factors of biomass production and storage in the US and identifies areas of standards development that the biomass industry needs from the agricultural safety and health community.

Background The aim of the present study is to investigate the association between psychosocial work characteristics and health functioning and cardiovascular disease risk factors among rural women of central Wisconsin and compare psychosocial work characteristics between farm and nonfarm women. Methods Stratified sampling was used to select a random sample (n = 1500) of farm and nonfarm women aged 25 to 71 years from the Central Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area. The baseline examination included measurements of blood pressure, height, weight, and fasting blood lipids, glucose, and insulin. Psychosocial job condition was measured with the Karasek Job Content Questionnaires (JCQ). Health functioning was assessed by the Short Form-36 Health Survey. Results The analysis of JCQ showed that nonfarm residents were more likely to have jobs with high demand and high decision latitude compared to farm residents. Also, the farm residents (40.3%) were more likely to be occupied in passive jobs (jobs with low levels of demand and control) than the nonfarm residents (26.9%). Among farm residents, psychological job demand was associated with HDL level (beta = 0.17), triglycerides (beta = 0.0), their ratio (beta = 0.005), and blood insulin level (beta = 0.014), and among nonfarm residents, psychological job demand was associated with diastolic blood pressure (beta = 0.17) and total cholesterol level (beta = 0.002). Conclusion Our results showed that rural farm residents had a higher prevalence of CVD risk factors and were more likely to be occupied in jobs with low levels of demand and control. Job stress predicted more CVD risk factors among farm residents compared to nonfarm residents. Therefore, interventions reducing job strain among rural farm residents are timely and necessary.

▪ Abstract Agricultural work is the most prevalent type of employment in the world. In the United States only a few are engaged in creating food and fiber for many. Agriculture includes farming, ranching, fishing, and forestry, and together they carry significant risk for the development of injury or illness. There are numerous special-population issues related to agriculture. Farmers are old and growing older, many workers are children, and migrant and seasonal help, often foreign born, make up a large percentage of the workforce. It has been only relatively recently that concerns of agricultural safety and health have become a major research focus in the United States.

OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of psychological factors on plasma lipid levels among rural women of central Wisconsin and to compare the effects of these variables among normal-weight and overweight women. METHODS Stratified sampling was used to select a random sample (n=1500) of farm and non-farm women aged 25 to 71 years from the Central Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area. The baseline examination included measurements of blood pressure, skin folds, height, weight, and fasting blood lipids, glucose, and insulin. Framingham study questionnaires were employed to measure anger, anxiety, tension, and marital disagreement. The Spielberger Trait anger-reaction subscale was employed to assess proneness to anger. RESULTS Among normal-weight women, a positive association was found between anger-reaction scores and cholesterol (b=0.008), ratio (b=0.014), triglycerides (b=0.02), and LDL (b=0.07). The odds of elevated cholesterol were highest among women with high scores on the Speilberger anger-reaction scale (OR=2.0) and anger discussion scale (OR=2.0), while the odds were less among women with high scores on the anger-out scale (OR=0.59). However, among overweight women, we found only scores on the Framingham anger-discussion scale as an important factor to determine the plasma lipid levels. CONCLUSION Anger management may help to sever the link between psychological factors and CHD risk factors. Intervention intended to prevent cardiac events through the reduction of stress and modification of related psychological risk factors have successfully improved the CHD risk factors profile. Similar studies are needed to determine the efficacy of intervention for the primary prevention of CHD risk factors.

A small number of women are the owner/operators of farms and women often participate in the work of production agriculture. Estimates of the percentage of females involved in agricultural injuries range from 11-45% and it is not clear if the risk factors associated with injuries to women are different from those for men. In a two year case-control study of injuries to farm residents, there were 40 injuries involving adult women. Multivariable analysis revealed that the two major risk factors for agricultural injury to females were number of hours worked and the presence of bulls on the farm. Most (55%) of the women were injured while in a barn. A cow was the primary agent of injury in 17 (42.5%) of the cases. Efforts to reduce the rate of injuries to women in agriculture should be targeted to the particular risks they experience.

In a continuing effort to explore the application and the reliability of self-reported symptoms and cholinesterase levels over time, 22 ginseng producers in central Wisconsin participated in two years of on-site testing. Each year, the participants reported on farming practices and health-seeking behavior and completed a 20-item questionnaire related to possible farm chemical exposure symptoms. Plasma and red cell cholinesterase were measured at the same time. No participant noted seizure symptoms. of the remaining 19 symptoms, the highest yearly correlations were the following: Have your relatives noted that you have trouble remembering (r = 0.82); have you had trouble falling asleep (r = 0.80); and are your fingers numb (r = 0.81). There were no significant changes in farming practices or health-seeking behavior. In 1994, 14 producers applied their own pesticides; nine did in 1995. Only nine (40.9%) of the participants were under a physician's care and three (13.6%) were under chiropractic care...

This journal issue focuses on the many health and safety outcomes associated with dairy work, including changes resulting from new technologies associated with modern, larger dairies. However, ther...

Study objective:To assess the characteristics of rural emergency medical services providers involved in the prehospital care of victims of agricultural injuries and determine which aspects of an agricultural rescue course were perceived as most useful.Design:A questionnaire was sent to participants of a course designed for agricultural prehospital providers who had attended a farm accident rescue course between 1986 and 1993.Setting:A rural referral center in central Wisconsin.Participants:The questionnaire was sent to all persons who had participated in the course. Respondents to the questionnaire characterized their service experience and rated the topic areas in usefulness and whether the subject should be included in future courses.Results:A total of 459 surveys (44% of potential respondents) was returned. Of the respondents, 316 (74.4%) were men, and the mean age was 39.4 years. There were 247 (60.8%) who were volunteers, and an additional 126 (31%) were paid, on-call workers. There were 232 (56.4%) basic providers, and 365 (87.5%) were from a rural area. Many (n = 149; 36.9%) had not responded to farm accidents during the past year. Training course topics rated most useful were machinery extrication, tractor overturn, and enclosed-space rescue.Conclusions:Respondents to an evaluation of an agricultural rescue course primarily were rural, basic providers. Future development of courses for emergency medical technicians involved in agriculture rescue must account for this level of training. Such courses should be short and modular with an emphasis on continuing education, practice, and focus on the identified needs of the participants.

The OSHA Power Generation Standard states that power generation employees shall be trained in specific applications of the standard that apply to individual job requirements. The intent of the project objective, then, is to create a tailored course that identifies standard requirements that apply to wind energy technicians.The purpose of this project is to develop an OSHA Power Generation Standard (1910.269) training course for both college based wind energy technician students and for continued workforce training of already employed wind technicians.

We studied suicide rates of those who resided in or worked within the five-state upper Midwest area (Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana) on farms and ranches from 1980 to 1988. All resident deaths constituted the universe of events (approximately 101,000 deaths per year). We retained only those deaths classified on the death certificate as “suicide” or “undetermined” and meeting specific residence and occupational criteria. Four rural populations were identified as at risk for suicide: farmers, farm women (homemakers), farm laborers, and children and adolescents. The rate of suicide among farmers ranged from 42 to 58 suicides per 100,000 farmers and ranchers. The rates of suicide for farm laborers and farm women were much lower, 3 to 6 and 2 to 9 events per 100,000, respectively. Children and adolescents residing on farms had the lowest suicide rates overall, at 1 to 4 events per 100,000; hobby farmers and farmers who held occupational positions off the farm had suicide rates of 3 to 30 events per 100,000. South Dakota and Montana reported proportionately more suicides of farmers and ranchers; Minnesota, North Dakota, and Wisconsin had fewer deaths. The typical farmer who committed suicide was 64 years of age; a farm woman, 48 years of age; farm laborer, 37 years of age; dual occupation farmer, 58 years of age; and an adolescent, 18 years of age. Among farmers, more suicides were detected during the Sunday through Tuesday interval; children, adolescents, and farm women were more likely to commit suicide on Friday or Saturday. April through June typically contained more events than other months, regardless of individual occupation. Where time of event was known, more farmers and farm women committed suicide between 9:00 AM and noon. Farm laborers and children and adolescents were most likely to commit suicide between midnight and 6:00 AM. Most victims chose firearms or poisoning by gas as the suicide method. Farm women, children, adolescents, and farm laborers were typically at low risk for suicide, but farmers and ranchers were one and one-half to two times more likely to commit suicide than other groups of men. We demonstrate a need for targeted research about underlying etiology and interventions focused on adult male residents of upper Midwest farms and ranches.

Proxy respondents have often been used in case-control studies of cancer and pesticides. To evaluate the effect of exposure misclassification, we compared data collected during 1981-1983 from participants interviewed for a case-control study of leukemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma with data collected during 1990-1991 from proxy respondents for participants who died or became incompetent since the initial interview (328 self-proxy pairs). As questions increased in detail, agreement percentages decreased. Agreement percentages were highest for demographic and general farming information (averages = 88-90%) and lowest for specific pesticide use (averages = 68-74%). Generally, odds ratios calculated from proxy respondent data were less than those from self-respondent data; however, several exceptions occurred. The findings indicate that pesticide data provided by proxy respondents will not necessarily result in the same estimate of risk and/or lead to the same conclusions as data provided by self-respondents.

This decade has provided North American agricultural producers with opportunity to not only produce fiber and food, but also fuel and other industrial products. The drivers incenting this development could be sustained well into the future, therefore workforce safety and health implications are likely to persist for some time. Within production agriculture, the 'feedstock growth and harvest cycle' and 'transport' sectors possess the changing exposures experienced by workers. The Conference explored the following exposures: distiller's grains and bio-processing byproducts, spent catalyst, solvent brine, microbial agents, genetically modified organisms, discharge effluent, H2O dilutes, change in cropping patterns and resultant use of different seeding and harvest technologies, pests (whether target or non-target), and rural traffic resulting from concentrated movement of massive quantities of biomass and grain. Other issues of a more general public health nature such as watershed implications, other environmental impacts, emissions, uneven economic development potential, public safety issues associated with transport of both fuel and other industrial products, and rural emergency medical service need were explored. And, agronomic impacts were noted, including tillage change, potassium buildup in soil, nutrient depletion, sedimentation and erosion of tillable soil, and local esthetics. It was concluded that rural venues for formation and exploration of public policy need to be created.

To compare psychological stress, quality of marital life, and disruptive homelife due to work among rural women of central Wisconsin who take vacations frequently and those who do not.Women were recruited from 1996 to 2001 for a prospective cohort study from the Marshfield Epidemiologic Study area, a geographic area in central Wisconsin. Stratified sampling was used to select a random sample of 1500 farm and non-farm resident women.The odds of depression and tension were higher among women who took vacations only once in 2 years (Depression: OR=1.92, 95% CI=1.2,3.0; Tension: OR=1.7, 95%CI=1.2, 2.3) or once in 6 years (Depression: OR=1.97, 95% CI=1.2, 3.2; Tension: OR=1.9, 95% CI=1.3,2.8) compared to women who took vacations twice or more per year. The odds of marital satisfaction decreased as the frequency of vacations decreased.Women who take vacations frequently are less likely to become tense, depressed, or tired, and are more satisfied with their marriage. These personal psychological benefits that lead to increased quality of life may also lead to improved work performance.

To determine the proportion of rural women who met screening recommendations for Pap smears, mammograms, blood cholesterol, and blood pressure measurements.Women aged 25-75 were recruited for a population-based study of chronic diseases in rural residents. In addition to a self-administered health questionnaire and a brief examination, the most recent Pap smear, mammogram, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol measurements were documented from electronic medical records.The study population was comprised of 675 farm and 825 non-farm residents. Fifty-five women (3.7%) had no documentation in their medical records of having ever had a Pap smear, and 19.3% (95% CL 16.9, 21.7) of women aged 40 and older had no documentation of a mammogram. Ninety-two percent of the women (95% CL = 90.2, 93.7) had a blood pressure measurement in the previous 2 years and 74.9% (95% CL = 72.2, 77.6) had a blood cholesterol measurement in the previous 5 years. Age was inversely related to Pap smears and positively correlated with mammograms, blood pressure, and blood cholesterol measurements. Farm residents were significantly less likely to have Pap smears or blood pressure measurements at recommended time intervals.To increase the proportion of rural women in compliance with preventive screening recommendations, public health education efforts should target farm residents and younger women.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the baseline difference in cardiovascular disease risk factors between farm and non-farm women in the Rural Women's Health Study.Women aged 25 to 75 years were recruited from the Central Marshfield Epidemiologic Study Area, a geographically defined area surrounding Marshfield, Wis. (population 19,000), where more than 95% of residents seek their health care from the Marshfield Clinic. The baseline examination included measurements of blood pressure, skin folds, height, weight, fasting blood lipids, and blood glucose. Health behavior information collected included smoking, dietary intake, reproductive health, physical activity, medical history, social support, occupational strain and symptoms of anxiety and depression.Between 1995 and 2001, 825 non-farm residents and 675 farm residents were examined (58% of eligible women). The farm residents were similar in age to the non-farm residents (mean 47.6 years and 47.0 years, t-test = -0.91, P value = 0.36). The total number of modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis ranged theoretically from 0 to 6, and actually from 0 to 5, with a small percentage of women having either none or 5 risk factors. The percentage of women with 3 or more modifiable risk factors was 26.1% (95% CL = 23.9, 28.4). The median number of total risk factors was 2 and the frequency distribution was not significantly different between farm and non-farm residents (chi 2 5 df = 4.6, P = 0.47). The prevalence of current cigarette smoking was significantly higher in the non-farm residents, while the prevalence of hypertension and obesity was significantly higher in the farm residents. Overall, obesity prevalence is significantly higher in the study cohort than US women in general (35% versus 23%). Only 5 (0.7%) of the farm residents and 10 (1.2%) of the non-farm residents reported a previous myocardial infarction.These data suggest that the prevalence of risk factors for atherosclerosis, and hence future coronary heart disease, is very high in rural women. Obesity prevention through increased physical activity would be appropriate for both farm and non-farm residents, while quit smoking campaigns should be specifically targeted towards non-farm resident women.

Background Personal protective equipment (PPE) is readily available and widely recommended, yet usage among agricultural workers is largely unknown. Methods A mail survey of 2,483 farmers in six Midwestern states with telephone follow-up addressed PPE usage related to sun exposure, noise abatement, chain saw usage, welding and metal work, handling of large animals in and out of confinement facilities, feed handling, manure storage facilities, and mixing and applying chemicals. Summary statistics of survey responses were compiled. Results With the exception of welding masks, PPE usage was low. Farmers were satisfied with availability of PPE through local hardware and farm cooperatives, but the decision to use PPE was personal and influenced little by outside parties. Conclusion PPE usage rates by farmers on Midwestern farms need to be increased. The desire of the individual farmer to reduce risk of personal injury or exposure should be targeted. The most effective venue will be local agricultural extension services. Am. J. Ind. Med. 42:236–247, 2002. © 2002 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The wide spectrum of agricultural diseases and injuries, combined with the changes in health care delivery, underscores the need for rural health care providers to maintain competency in occupational medicine pertaining to agriculture. Educational needs and training preferences of rural health care providers were determined through mail survey research conducted among a random sample of Midwest physicians, physician assistants, nurses, veterinarians, and chiropractors. Data from 1,237 survey participants revealed the most common agricultural exposures experienced by their patients/clients include heavy lifting, environmental dusts or irritants, and hazardous machinery. Minimal clinical competency was reported for exposures to pesticides, noxious gases, and volatile organic chemicals. Textbooks and journals were the most commonly used reference sources of the providers. Family and professional obligations along with cost and difficulty acquiring practice coverage, were the major barriers to participation in continuing education programs. Survey results suggest methods to maximize professional education and training experiences relevant to agricultural exposures.

Cumulative sun exposure has been linked to about 95 percent of all skin cancers. Farmers and their families, by nature of their occupations, are exposed to an abundance of sun over a long period of time and, therefore, are at an increased risk for skin cancer. Because education is known to be a primary means of health, Future Farmers of America (FFA) peer facilitators (teen educators) provided third graders in rural communities sun protection education with the hope that the message would reach the entire family. The FFA facilitators (n = 217) from 39 FFA organizations throughout Wisconsin were trained with skin cancer and sun protection information. The FFA facilitators then gave presentations on sun protection to third graders (n = 2,007) in their school districts. Control schools included 57 facilitators and 669 third graders. Evaluation involved pre-, post-, and six-month follow-up surveys testing knowledge gained by the third graders. Students who correctly responded to a question on the post-survey after incorrectly answering it on the pre-survey were said to have had a knowledge gain for that question. By using chi-square tests, the intervention group demonstrated a statistically significant (P < 0.001) higher proportion of students experiencing knowledge gain than did the control group from pre- to post-surveys for nine of the 10 questions. Summary statistics were used to describe the study population. In addition to skin cancer knowledge questions, the survey of facilitators included sun protection behavior and attitude questions. This intervention was able to use peer educators as instructors to demonstrate knowledge gain in the youths of the target population. The pilot project materials costs were +0.55 per third grade student and +3.50 per facilitator. Using a school-based organization such as FFA provided a cost-effective means of reaching the rural population.

Information on agricultural trauma is limited and difficult to find. Planning for effective prevention strategies and evaluation is compromised by lack of a good surveillance system. Several agencies and organizations have provided some data. Although their summation is at best an approximation of the real situation, a critical review of current data bases is presented. The literature is also reviewed attempting to characterize agricultural trauma. This characterization was classified into: 1) case descriptions, 2) reviews of general articles on the hazards of farming, and 3) descriptive surveys of agricultural injuries. A summary of the available literature still leaves a rather superficial understanding of the entire injury picture. A new approach to surveillance is necessary to overcome past deficiencies. A combined modality approach is suggested, utilizing on-site survey, mail survey, telephone interviewing, and medical record verification. Trial applications of two such systems in Minnesota are described.

Persons with learning disabilities (mental retardation, hyperactivity disorder, or a language learning disorder) who suffered agricultural injuries during a two-year period of observation (1 May 1990 through 30 April 1992) were identified. Their charts were reviewed for evidence of injuries both before and after that time period. These 28 individuals, who suffered 31 agricultural injuries during those two years, were predominately male (27; 96.4%) with a mean age of 20.16 years at the time of the index injury. Fifteen (53.6%) were farm residents. In addition to the identified conditions, six (21.4%) individuals had prior head injuries and three (10.7%) had prior diagnoses of substance abuse, depression, or asthma. In evaluating the factors associated with injury, 18 (64.3%) of the total were injured while working, and 9 (32.2%) were associated with cattle. A spectrum of injuries were seen with the most common being contusions, lacerations, and sprains. In addition to the index injuries, there were 239 additional injuries of which 35 (14.6%) were agricultural related. Before, during, and after the two-year period of observation, nonfarm residents had more injuries per person than did farm residents. Although there was no overall difference between the number of injuries per person for those with hyperactivity and those with a learning disability but not hyperactivity, the number of agricultural related injuries were actually less in those with hyperactivity. All injuries tended to be more common in those with mental retardation than those with other learning disability. Risk factors and pattern of injury for those with these learning disabilities depend on the specific diagnoses. In addition, agricultural injuries were recognized as only a small part of the overall trauma. Efforts at reducing agricultural injuries in this special group will need to recognize that occupational injuries, including agricultural injuries, are only part of a substantial injury pattern for these individuals.

Neuroblastoma is the most common neoplasm in children less than 1 year of age and has one of the earliest incidence peaks of all childhood cancers. Using birth registration data, a matched case-control study was undertaken to investigate potential prenatal and perinatal risk factors. Ninety-seven neuroblastoma patients who were born in Minnesota were matched with four controls each. No associations were identified for sex, race, parental age, parental education, complications of pregnancy, labor, or delivery, or the previously reported factors of birth weight greater than 4000 g or gestational duration of 36 weeks or less. In 6.6% of the cases and 0.8% of the controls, physical anomalies were noticed before discharge from the newborn nursery. Of the six anomalies reported in the cases, four were found to be the tumor itself or a complication of it. A significant protective effect (odds ratio (OR), 0.47) was noticed for a maternal history of previous fetal loss. Future studies, including biologic markers and stage stratification, may yield more insight into the cause of this disease.

Increased birth weight previously has been reported to be associated with childhood acute leukemia although the etiologic importance of this finding remains unclear. To further assess birth weight and associated parameters as a risk factor for childhood leukemia, a case/control study was performed using children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) born in the state of Minnesota and diagnosed since 1969. Data obtained from birth registrations of 219 cases were compared with two control groups matched on date and county of birth (group I) or year of birth (group II). No significant differences were observed in mean birth weights of cases and controls. Statistically significant associations with birth weights greater than 3800 g were identified in cases diagnosed within the first 4 years of life. No associations were found between birth weight and ALL for case children diagnosed after 4 years of age. Factors that might be associated with increased birth weight, including maternal age, birth order, length of gestation, and socioeconomic status as measured by paternal education, were not found to be associated with an increased risk for ALL. The significance of the finding of high birth weight as a risk factor for childhood ALL remains unknown but suggests that pregnancy-related events may be of importance in the etiology of ALL in young children.

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate whether sexual guilt or religion is a better predictor of three sex variables. A 1 73-item sex questionnaire was administered to 327 college students. It was found that sexual guilt is a far better and more powerful predictor of level of sex information obtained, sexual attitudes held, and sexual behavior expressed than religion. The conclusion is that religion is an intervening variable with sexual guilt such that the more frequently students attend church, the more likely they are to have high sexual guilt which interferes with their sexuality.

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of sex education on college students with respect to their sex information guilt and behaviors. A single 251 item sex questionnaire was administered to 156 college students at the beginning and end of a course on human sexuality. The major conclusion are that sex education has many positive effects such as reduction of sexual guilt inhibitions and the double standard maintaining the traditional values of love and fidelity and providing a healthier more comfortable and responsible attitude toward sex. (Authors)